Chapter-8 : Socio-Religious Reform Movements in 19th Century India: General Features
Arora IAS Class Notes
Context:
- Early 19th century: Rise of a “modern vision” among educated Indians.
- This period is sometimes referred to as the Indian Renaissance.
Factors Giving Rise to Reform:
- Impact of British Rule:
- Different from past invasions – British did not assimilate into Indian culture.
- Exposed the “stagnant” state of Indian society compared to a more scientific Europe.
- Social Conditions Ripe for Reform:
- Religious and Social Ills:
- Superstition and obscurantism in Hinduism.
- Powerful and controlling priesthood.
- Idolatry and polytheism.
- Depressing Position of Women:
- Female infanticide.
- Child marriage.
- Sati (widow burning).
- Limited rights and opportunities.
- The Caste Problem:
- Rigid social hierarchy based on birth.
- Untouchables faced severe discrimination.
- Limited social mobility and national unity.
- Caste system present in other religions too.
- Opposition to Western Culture:
- Response to the imposition of colonial culture.
- Desire to revitalize traditional institutions.
- Religious and Social Ills:
New Awareness among Enlightened Indians:
- Realization of weaknesses in Indian society.
- Diverse reactions to Western influence:
- Some rejected Hindu traditions and embraced Western practices.
- Common theme: Need for social and religious reform.
Strengthening the Resolve for Reform:
- Growth of nationalism and democracy.
- Emergence of new economic forces.
- Spread of education.
- Impact of modern Western ideas.
- Increased global awareness.
Social and Ideological Bases of Reform Movements
Social Base:
- Middle Class and Intellectuals:
- Newly emerging group influenced by Western education.
- Grew from government service, professions, or land ownership.
- Inspired by European “middle class” role in modernization.
Intellectual Criteria:
- Rationalism:
- Judged social practices based on reason and logic.
- e.g., Raja Rammohan Roy emphasizing causality and evidence.
- Used to evaluate tradition and replace faith with reason.
- Religious Universalism:
- Sought common ground across religions.
- e.g., Raja Rammohan Roy seeing monotheistic principles in various faiths.
- Aimed to transcend religious identity and promote unity.
- Humanism:
- Emphasis on human progress and well-being.
- Advocated individual rights and challenged priestly control.
- Focused on this-worldly concerns over salvation or afterlife.
Two Streams of Reform:
- Reformist Movements:
- Focused on changing existing religions.
- g., Brahmo Samaj, Prarthana Samaj, Aligarh Movement.
- Used reason and conscience to reform social practices.
- Revivalist Movements:
- Sought to restore past purity of their religion.
- e.g., Arya Samaj, Deobandi Movement.
- Relied on tradition to reform but differed in the degree they did so.
Direction of Social Reform
Humanistic Ideals:
- Social equality and individual worth inspired reform.
- Linked to religious reforms as social ills stemmed from religion.
- Gradually adopted a secular approach in later years.
Expanding Social Base:
- Initially focused on upper and middle classes/castes.
- Later movements reached lower strata for broader reform.
- Leaders like Jyotirao Phule, B.R. Ambedkar, and others emerged.
- National movement provided leadership and organization in the 20th century.
Reaching the Masses:
- Use of Indian languages for wider communication.
- Diverse media: novels, dramas, poetry, press, and later, cinema.
Two Main Areas of Focus:
- Fight for Women’s Upliftment:
- Low status, limited opportunities, and harmful practices like purdah, child marriage, sati.
- Denied education, property rights, and control over marriage.
- Reformers argued for equality based on reason and true religion.
- Fought against polygamy, purdah, child marriage, widow remarriage restrictions.
- Advocated for women’s education and legal reforms.
Steps Taken to Ameliorate Women’s Position in 19th Century India
Government Measures:
- Abolition of Sati (1829):
- Led by Raja Rammohan Roy and outlawed by Governor-General Bentinck.
- Considered culpable homicide under Bengal Code.
- Similar measures taken in Madras and Bombay Presidencies.
- Preventing Female Infanticide (1795 & 1804):
- Declared illegal and equivalent to murder under Bengal regulations.
- 1870 Act made birth registration compulsory with verification, especially in high-risk areas.
- Widow Remarriage (1856):
- Pioneered by Brahmo Samaj and championed by Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar.
- Hindu Widows’ Remarriage Act legalized widow remarriage and ensured legitimacy of children.
- Supported by efforts of Vishnu Shastri Pandit, Karsandas Mulji, D.K. Karve, and Veerasalingam Pantulu.
- Controlling Child Marriage:
- Limited progress with Native Marriage Act (1872) excluding Hindus and Muslims.
- Age of Consent Act (1891) raised minimum age to 12 due to B.M. Malabari’s efforts and the Rukhmabai case.
- Child Marriage Restraint Act (1929) (Sarda Act) set minimum age at 18 for girls and 14 for boys.
Additional Points:
- Rukhmabai case (1884-1887) highlighted child marriage and women’s rights.
- Rukhmabai Defence Committee formed to advocate for Rukhmabai.
- Child Marriage Restraint (Amendment) Act (1978) further raised minimum age in independent India.
Education of Women in 19th Century India
Pioneers and Institutions:
- Christian Missionaries:Established Calcutta Female Juvenile Society (1819).
- E.D. Bethune:Founded Bethune School (1849), a landmark for women’s education.
- Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar:Associated with 35+ girls’ schools in Bengal.
- Maharashtra:
- Jagannath Shankarsheth: Provided space and funds for girls’ schools.
- Bhau Daji Lad: Championed female education, had a girls’ school named after him.
- Jyotirao Phule and Savitribai Phule:
- Opened the first school for girls in Pune (1848).
- Savitribai Phule became the first female teacher in modern India.
- Faced opposition but continued to open more schools.
- Alexandra Society of Parsis (1863):Focused on educating Parsi girls.
- Cornelia Sorabji (1887): First female graduate of Bombay University, advocated for women’s education.
Government Support:
- Lord Dalhousie (1854): Emphasized support for female education.
- Charles Wood’s Despatch on Education (1854): Stressed the need for female education.
Later Developments:
- Women’s Medical Service (1914): Trained nurses and midwives.
- Indian Women’s University (1916): Imparted higher education to women.
- Lady Hardinge Medical College (1916): Provided medical education for women.
- Dufferin Hospitals (1880s): Offered healthcare facilities for women.
Women’s Organizations in Early 20th Century India
Pioneering Organizations:
- Bharat Stree Mahamandal (1910):
- Founded by Sarla Devi Chaudhurani.
- Advocated for women’s education, ending purdah, and social/economic/political improvement.
- Ladies Social Conference (1904):
- Founded by Ramabai Ranade.
- Focused on social reform and women’s education.
- Arya Mahila Samaj:
- Founded by Pandita Ramabai Saraswati.
- Advocated for improved education and medical opportunities for women.
National Organizations:
- National Council of Women in India (1925):
- Indian branch of International Council of Women.
- Led by Mehribai Tata.
- Focused on education, social issues, and women’s participation in solving societal problems.
- Included prominent women like Cornelia Sorabji and Maharani Sucharu Devi.
- Criticized for an upper-class, philanthropic approach.
Egalitarian Approach:
- All India Women’s Conference (AIWC) (1927):
- Founded by Margaret Cousins.
- Aimed for a society based on social justice, equal rights, and opportunity.
- Led by figures like Sarojini Naidu and Lady Dorab Tata.
- Worked for legislative reforms including:
- Sarda Act (1929) – Child Marriage Restraint
- Hindu Women’s Right to Property Act (1937)
- Various acts promoting women’s rights and well-being
Struggle Against Caste-Based Exploitation in India
Origins of Caste System:
- Four-fold division of Hindu society (Varnas)
- Determined social status, profession, rights
- Untouchables faced the worst discrimination
Factors Weakening Caste System:
- British Rule (Indirectly):
- Created private property, disrupting caste-linked professions.
- Introduced a uniform legal system, reducing social and legal inequalities.
- Opened administrative services to all castes.
- Secular education system.
- Social Reform Movements (Mid-19th Century Onwards):
- Brahmo Samaj, Prarthana Samaj, Arya Samaj, Ramakrishna Mission, etc.
- Promoted education for untouchables and fought against restrictions.
- Criticized untouchability while defending the Varna system (some exceptions).
- National Movement:
- Emphasized liberty, equality, and individual rights.
- Fought for equal civic rights and challenged caste privileges.
- Mass participation in protests and movements fostered some unity.
- Congress governments in provinces took steps to uplift depressed classes (e.g., free education).
- Gandhi aimed to eradicate untouchability through reason and social reform.
- Founded All India Harijan Sangh (1932).
Dalit Movement:
- Jyotirao Phule (Maharashtra):
- Fought against Brahminical dominance.
- Opened schools for lower castes, especially girls.
- Gopal Baba Valangkar (Maharashtra):
- Advocated for upliftment of untouchables.
- Published journals against caste discrimination.
- Founded Anarya Dosh-Parihar Mandali (Society for Removal of Evils Among the Non-Aryans).
- Launched Dalit newspaper, Vital Vidhvasak (Destroyer of Brahmanical Pollution).
- Kisan Faguji Bansod (Maharashtra):
- Promoted Dalit upliftment within Hinduism.
- Published journals for Dalit awakening.
- R. Ambedkar:
- Experienced untouchability firsthand.
- Launched newspapers like Mooknayak (Leader of the Voiceless) to raise awareness.
- Formed Bahushkrit Hitakarani Sabha (Educate, Agitate, Organize) for mass mobilization.
- Founded All India Scheduled Castes Federation (1942).
- Condemned the caste system and advocated for its annihilation.
- Other Movements:
- Maharaja of Kolhapur supported the non-Brahmin movement in the South (early 20th century).
- V. Ramaswamy Naicker led the Self-Respect Movement in South India (1920s).
- Sri Narayana Guru (Kerala) fought against upper-caste domination.
- Mahad Satyagraha (1927) led by Ambedkar challenged untouchability restrictions on water access.
Post-Independence Measures:
- Indian Constitution:
- Abolished untouchability and caste-based discrimination.
- Guaranteed equal access to public spaces and resources.
- Aimed to create a social order based on social, economic, and political justice.