Chapter-30 : Development of Education under East India Company Rule : Arora IAS Class Notes

Chapter-30

Development of Education under East India Company Rule

Arora IAS Class Notes

 

Early Company Rule (1757-1813):

• Limited Company Role:Little focus on education for the first 60 years.
• Individual Efforts:
  • Warren Hastings (1781): Calcutta Madrasah (Muslim law).
  • Jonathan Duncan (1791): Sanskrit College (Hindu law and philosophy).
  • Richard Wellesley (1800): Fort William College (training for company officials – closed 1802).
• Motives:
  • Assisting legal administration.
  • Understanding Indian languages and customs.

 

Shifting Pressures (Late 18th Century onwards):

• Enlightened Indians and Missionaries:Advocated for modern, Western education.
• Goals:
  • Social, economic, and political improvement.
  • Religious conversion (missionaries).
• Serampore Missionaries:Particularly active in promoting education.

 

Orientalist vs. Anglicist Debate (Early 19th Century)

• General Committee on Public Instruction:
  • Orientalists:Promote traditional Indian learning alongside Western subjects.
  • Anglicists:Focus solely on modern Western education for practical benefits.
• Disagreements:
  • Use of English vs. Indian languages as medium of instruction.

 

Macaulay’s Minute (1835):

• Favored Anglicists’ view.
• Advocated for English medium and Western sciences/literature.
• Believed European knowledge superior (true for some contemporary science and social sciences).

Impact of Macaulay’s Minute:

• English became medium of instruction in government schools and colleges.
• Focus on a few English-medium institutions over mass education.
• Creation of a class “Indian in blood and colour, but English in tastes” to serve as intermediaries.
• “Downward Filtration Theory”: Modern ideas would gradually reach the masses through these elites (partially successful, but not as intended).

 

Efforts for Vernacular Education:

• James Thomson (1843-1853):Promoted village schools using vernacular languages.
• Wood’s Despatch (1854):“Magna Carta of English Education in India”
  • Government responsibility for mass education (repudiating downward filtration theory).
  • Educational hierarchy: village schools -> Anglo-Vernacular high schools -> colleges -> universities.
  • English for higher studies, vernaculars at school level.
  • Emphasis on female and vocational education, teacher training.
  • Secular education in government institutions.
  • Grant-in-aid system for private institutions.

 

Developments after Wood’s Despatch:

• Establishment of universities in Calcutta, Bombay, and Madras (1857).
• Education departments in all provinces.
• Bethune School (1849): First major initiative for girls’ education.
• Growth of private Indian educational efforts alongside missionary institutions.
• Westernization of education system with European leadership for several decades.

 

After the Crown Takeover (1858 onwards):

Hunter Commission (1882-1883):

• Focus on neglected primary and secondary education.
• Recommendations:
  • Emphasize state support for expanding and improving primary education.
  • Use vernacular languages for primary education.
  • Transfer control of primary education to district and municipal boards.
  • Create two divisions in secondary education:
    • Literary (university preparation)
    • Vocational (commercial careers)
  • Address inadequate facilities for female education.

Impact:

• Rapid growth of secondary and collegiate education with increased Indian participation.
• Establishment of more teaching universities (e.g., Punjab University, Allahabad University).

 

Indian Universities Act (1904):

• Context: Early 20th century political unrest.
• Government concerns:
  • Declining quality of education under private management.
  • Educational institutions breeding “political revolutionaries.”
• Raleigh Commission (1902): Investigated universities (excluding primary/secondary education).
• Indian Universities Act provisions:
  • Increased government control over universities:
    • Appointing fellows.
    • Vetoing/amending university regulations.
    • Stricter affiliation conditions for private colleges.
  • Five lakh rupees annually for improving higher education (for five years).
• Government justification: Improve quality and efficiency.
• Nationalist view: Suppress education and control educated population.

 

Government Resolution on Education Policy (1913):

• Compulsory primary education: A debated issue.
• Gokhale’s Resolution (1910): Advocated for compulsory primary education in qualified areas.
• Government response: Established central education department but rejected compulsory education.
• Government Resolution (1913):
  • Reasserted government’s refusal of compulsory education.
  • Focused on reducing illiteracy and encouraging free elementary education for poorer sections.
  • Promoted private efforts in education.
  • Aimed to improve quality of secondary schools.
  • Planned a university in each province.
  • Emphasized practical curriculum and fewer exams for girls’ education.
  • Advocated for more women teachers and inspectors.

Sadler University Commission (1917-1919):

• Focus: Improvement of Calcutta University (recommendations applied to others).
• Reviewed school to university education.
• Emphasized improved secondary education for better university education.
• Recommendations:
  • 12-year school course with intermediate stage before university.
    • Purpose: Prepare students, reduce under-qualified students in universities, offer collegiate education beyond university prep.
  • Separate board for secondary and intermediate education.
  • More flexible university regulations.
  • Universities as centralized, residential teaching bodies (instead of scattered colleges).
  • Expansion of female education, applied science/technology education, teacher training.

Impact:

• Significant influence on education development in following decades.
• Seven new universities established (1916-1921).
• Rise of teaching and residential universities.
• Introduction of honors courses leading to increased academic activity.
• Growth in Indian language studies and facilities for research.
• Creation of professor positions and improved university administration.
• Establishment of Academic Councils for curriculum, exams, and research.
• 1925: Inter-University Board for coordination among universities.
• Increased focus on student welfare (boards established).
• Criticisms: Recommendations seen as too advanced for the time.

Education Under Dyarchy (1919 onwards):

• Education transferred to provincial ministries under Montagu-Chelmsford reforms.
• Reduced government involvement and financial grants.
• Limited educational expansion despite financial difficulties.
• Reliance on philanthropic efforts to support education.

 

Hartog Committee Report (1929)

Background:

• Established by Simon Commission to assess educational decline due to rapid expansion.

Findings and Recommendations:

Primary Education:

• Issues:
  • Wastage (children leaving school before becoming literate).
  • Stagnation (repeating grades).
  • Poor quality teachers (often single teacher schools, lack of women teachers).
  • Short-lived schools.
  • Inadequate inspection.
• Recommendations:
  • Government control and inspection of primary schools.
  • Four-year primary education.
  • Curriculums and schedules adapted to local contexts and needs (practical subjects).
  • Teacher training programs and refresher courses.
  • Increased and improved school inspection.
  • Primary schools as community centers (adult education, healthcare, recreation).

Secondary Education:

• Issues:
  • Excessive focus on exams.
  • High failure rates in matriculation exam.
• Recommendations:
  • More diversified curriculum with elective courses based on student aptitude.
  • Inclusion of industrial and commercial subjects.

Higher Education:

• Issues:
  • Low standards.
  • Overcrowded universities.
  • Poorly equipped libraries.
• Recommendations:
  • Establish affiliated universities alongside existing unitary and residential universities.
  • Improve university libraries.
  • Introduce honors courses.
  • Select students based on abilities and aptitudes.
  • Develop well-rounded, critical-thinking individuals.

Women’s Education:

• Recommendations:
  • Equal emphasis on education for boys and girls.
  • More primary schools for girls.
  • Secondary school curriculum to include hygiene, home science, and music.
  • Focus on training women teachers.

Impact:

• Improved quality of primary education (to some extent, quantitative expansion suffered).
• Improved secondary education.
• Increase in affiliated colleges.

 

Sargent Plan of Education (1944)

• Author:Sir John Sargent, Educational Advisor to Government of India
• Purpose:Develop a long-term plan for educational reconstruction after WWII.
• Goal:Achieve universal literacy in India within 40 years.

Recommendations:

• Pre-primary Education (ages 3-6):
  • Free and focused on social experience.
  • Women teachers with proper training.
• Primary Education (ages 6-14):
  • Universal, compulsory, and free.
  • Two stages: Junior Basic (6-11) and Senior Basic (11-14).
  • “Learning through activity” approach.
  • Emphasis on practical skills and local crafts.
  • Senior Basic to include physical training and organized games.
• Secondary Education (ages 11+):
  • Selective (based on ability and aptitude for higher studies).
  • Six-year duration.
  • Fees with scholarships and financial aid options.
  • Two streams: Academic and Technical/Vocational.
    • Academic: Arts and pure sciences.
    • Technical/Vocational: Applied sciences, industrial/commercial subjects.
  • Mother tongue as medium of instruction.
  • English as a compulsory second language.
  • Art, music, and domestic science (for girls) included in curriculum.
  • No leaving school before age 14.
• University Education:
  • Three-year degree course after higher secondary exam (abolish intermediate course).
  • Improved standards and stricter admission procedures.
  • Financial assistance for poor students.
  • Emphasis on competent teachers, improved service conditions.
  • High standards in postgraduate studies and research.
  • All-India organization to coordinate universities (similar to UK’s University Grants Committee).

Additional Recommendations:

• Adult literacy programs (within 20 years).
• Comprehensive adult education (general & vocational).
• Medical checkups for students.
• Special education for disabled children.
• Employment bureaus.

Criticisms:

• Long timeframe for achieving universal primary education (40 years).
• Exorbitant implementation costs.
• Unrealistic expectations of replicating English education levels in India.
• Considered impractical and unsuitable for Indian context.

Wardha Scheme of Basic Education (1937)

• Origin:All India Education Conference organized by Congress (1937).
• Formulated by:Zakir Hussain Committee.
• Philosophy:“Learning through activity” based on Gandhi’s ideas.
• Criticisms of Existing System:
  • Created a gap between educated elite and masses.
  • Rendered educated elite ineffective.
• Scheme Proposals:
  • Free and compulsory education for ages 7-14.
  • Inclusion of a basic handicraft (spinning, weaving, carpentry, etc.) in curriculum.
  • Mother tongue as medium of instruction (Hindi in non-Hindi speaking areas).
  • Establishing connections with local communities through service projects.
  • Integrating social and scientific aspects of chosen crafts.
  • Curriculum including mathematics, science, social studies, arts, music, and physical education.
  • Exclusion of religious and moral education.
• Goals:
  • Foster a child-centered and cooperative learning environment.
  • Create a self-reliant and non-violent society through education.
• Impact:
  • Limited development due to WWII and resignation of Congress ministries (1939).

 

Development of Vernacular Education (1800s-1930s)

• Early 19th Century:
  • Poor state of vernacular education, reliant on wealthy patrons.
  • 1835-1838: William Adam’s reports exposed flaws in Bengal and Bihar systems.
• 1843-1853:James Jonathan’s initiatives in North-West Provinces:
  • Model government schools in each tehsildari.
  • Normal schools for vernacular teacher training.
• 1853:Lord Dalhousie advocated strongly for vernacular education.
• 1854:Wood’s Despatch provisions for vernacular education:
  • Improved standards.
  • Government supervision.
  • Normal schools for teacher training.
  • Led to increased focus on vernacular education (1854-1871).
    • Five-fold increase in vernacular schools.
  • 1882:Hunter Commission emphasized state efforts for vernacular education.
    • Mass education through vernacular languages.
  • 1904:Education policy prioritizes vernacular education with increased funding.
  • 1929:Hartog Committee report highlighted issues in primary education.
  • 1937:Congress ministries supported vernacular schools.

Development of Technical Education (1800s)

• Engineering Colleges:
  • 1847: Roorkee Engineering College established.
  • 1856: Calcutta College of Engineering founded.
• 1858:Poona Overseers’ School upgraded to Poona College of Engineering (affiliated with Bombay University).
• Medical Training:
  • 1835: Medical college established in Calcutta.
• Lord Curzon’s Contributions:
  • Expanded professional courses: medicine, agriculture, engineering, veterinary science.
  • Established agriculture college at Pusa (parent institution for others).

 

Evaluation of British Educational Policy in India

Motives Behind British Education Measures:

• Not purely philanthropic.
• Influenced by:
  • Demands for modern education (enlightened Indians, missionaries, officials).
  • Need for cheap, educated Indian labor (administration, businesses).
  • Hope to expand British market in India.
  • Expectation of creating loyalty to British rule.

Impact on Indian Education System:

• Decline of traditional learning due to lack of support, especially after English became mandatory for government jobs (1844).
• Neglect of mass education, leading to high illiteracy rates (84% in 1911, 92% in 1921).
• Educational elitism – focus on upper classes and urban areas due to costs.
• Neglect of women’s education due to fear of angering conservatives and lack of perceived benefit for colonial rule.
• Limited scientific and technical education – only 3 medical colleges and 1 engineering college (for Europeans/Eurasians) by 1857.