CHAPTER-31 : From Ancient to Medieval
Ancient History of India
OLD NCERT
Short Notes or Revision Notes
Social Transformation in Medieval India: Land Grants and Agrarian Change
Rise of Landlords (from 5th century CE):
- Land grants to Brahmins became frequent.
- Brahmins collected taxes, maintained order in villages granted to them.
- Weakened central royal power compared to the Maurya era.
- Shift in king’s role: “gopati” (cattle owner) to “bhupati” (land owner).
- Cash payments to officials declined, replaced by land grants.
- By 7th century, a landed elite emerged with weaker central authority.
New Agrarian Economy:
- I-tsing (Chinese pilgrim) notes use of servants and others for cultivation on monastery lands.
- Hsuan Tsang suggests Shudras transitioned beyond slave/laborer roles to possibly tenant farming.
- Increased use of sharecroppers and peasants to cultivate granted lands, especially in undeveloped areas (Orissa, Deccan).
- This practice spread to the Ganges basin later.
Decline of Trade and Towns (from 6th century CE):
- End of major trade with Roman Empire (3rd century CE).
- Silk trade with Iran and Byzantium stopped (mid-6th century CE).
- Limited trade with China and Southeast Asia, controlled by Arab middlemen.
- Decline in gold coins reflects reduced trade activity.
- Towns that flourished under earlier empires (Satavahanas, Kushans, Guptas) decayed or disappeared.
- Examples: towns in Haryana, East Punjab, Purana Qila (Delhi), Mathura, Hastinapur, Shravasti, Kaushambi, Rajghat, Chirand, Vaishali, Pataliputra.
- Silk weavers in Mandasor (Malwa) abandoned their craft due to changing economic landscape.
Overall Impact:
- Land grants transformed social structure, weakening centralized power and creating a landed elite.
- Agrarian practices shifted with increased use of sharecroppers and peasants.
- Decline in trade led to the decay of towns and a shift in the Indian economy.
Transformation of Social Order and Rise of Regional Identities
Changes in the Varna System (from 6th century CE):
- Land grants created a new landlord class between peasants and the king.
- Vaishyas (traditionally merchants/farmers) lost status, becoming closer to Shudras (laborers).
- Spread of Brahminical order with land grants brought north Indian Brahmins south.
- Proliferation of castes:
- Puranic text mentions numerous mixed castes from Vaishya women and lower castes.
- Increased sub-castes among Shudras, Untouchables, Brahmins, and Rajputs (dominant warrior class).
Rise of Regional Identities (from 6th-7th century CE):
- Formation of cultural regions: Karnataka, Maharashtra, Orissa, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, etc.
- Emergence of Apabhramsha language:
- Bridge between Prakrit and modern Indo-Aryan languages (600-1000 CE).
- Used in Jain literature.
- Hints of modern languages like Bengali, Hindi, Gujarati, Kannada, and Telugu appear in Apabhramsha writings.
- Regional isolation led to development of distinct languages.
Overall Impact:
- Land grants and social mobility challenged the old Varna system.
- Rise of regional identities and languages marked the shift from a more unified to a more diverse society.
Literary and Religious Trends in Medieval India
Trends in Literature (6th-7th century CE):
- Sanskrit Literature:
- Used by the elite.
- Ornate style with metaphors and imagery.
- Example: Bana’s prose.
- Focus on Sex and Religion:
- Supported by the landed class.
- Sexual union seen as a path to the divine (Vajrayana Tantrics).
- Commentaries:
- Large corpus written between 5th-18th centuries.
- Explained and interpreted older texts (Sanskrit, Pali, Prakrit).
- Reinforced existing social hierarchies.
The Divine Hierarchy and Temple Architecture (7th-8th century CE onwards):
- Regional Styles:
- South India – focus on stone temples.
- Deities and Ranking:
- Stone and bronze used for sculptures and statues.
- Rise of the Panchayatana system: five principal deities (Shiva, Vishnu, Shakti, Brahma, Ganapati).
- Vedic gods (Indra, Varuna, Yama) became less prominent.
- Hierarchical monastic structures with acharyas at the top.
Religious Movements:
- Bhakti Cult (from 7th century CE):
- Devotion and surrender to a chosen deity.
- Offering and receiving “prasada” (favor) from the god.
- Tantrism (from 6th century CE):
- Socio-economic context: rise of Brahmin land ownership.
- Open to women and Shudras.
- Emphasis on magic rituals.
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