Chapter-6 : People’s Resistance Against British Rule Before 1857
Arora IAS Modern History Notes
Who Resisted?
- Peasants, artisans, tribals, rulers (active or deposed), military personnel (both British and Indian), religious leaders (Hindu and Muslim).
- Examples:
- Benares agitation (1810) – Urban poor against house tax.
- Surat riots (1814) – Against salt duty.
- Bareilly rising (1816) – Against police and municipal taxes.
Forms of Resistance:
- Bipan Chandra’s categorization:
- Civil rebellions (urban protests)
- Tribal uprisings
- Peasant movements
- Military revolts by Indian sepoys(added for comprehensiveness)
Reasons for Resistance:
- Colonial policies:
- Revenue extraction focus.
- Unresponsive administration.
- Laws favoring British interests.
- Economic hardship:
- High land revenue demands.
- New taxes.
- Eviction from land.
- Devastation of Indian industries:
- Promotion of British goods.
- Heavy duties on Indian products.
- Loss of jobs in traditional industries.
- Tribal grievances:
- Loss of control over land and resources.
Overall Impact:
- Resistance movements expressed growing resentment against British rule.
- Set the stage for later movements, including the 1857 Sepoy Mutiny.
Civil Uprisings Against British Rule
Who Led?
- Dispossessed rulers, zamindars, poligars (South Indian landholders), ex-officials, religious leaders.
- Supported by peasants, artisans, demobilized soldiers.
Causes:
- Economic changes under British rule:
- New land revenue system.
- Loss of control over land and revenue for former elites.
- Decline of traditional elites:
- Sidelined by British officials and new merchant class.
- Economic hardship:
- Ruin of Indian handicraft industries due to British policies.
- Loss of jobs and patrons for artisans.
- Religious motivations:
- Priests and religious leaders impacted by decline of traditional elites.
- Resentment against British rule:
- Feeling of foreign domination and disrespect.
Characteristics:
- Localized movements with specific grievances.
- Led by traditional elites seeking to restore old power structures.
- Not forward-looking in ideology.
Important Civil Uprisings Against British Rule
Sanyasi Revolt (1763-1800)
- Cause:Famine of 1770, harsh British economic rule.
- Location:Eastern India.
- Participants:Sanyasis (ascetics), peasants, zamindars, demobilized soldiers.
- Leaders:Majnum Shah, Chirag Ali, Musa Shah, Bhawani Pathak, Debi Chaudhurani (woman leader).
- Significance:Early resistance movement involving both Hindus and Muslims.
Revolt in Midnapore and Dhalbhum (1766-1774)
- Cause:Introduction of new land revenue system by British.
- Location:Midnapore and Dhalbhum regions.
- Leaders:Zamindars – Damodar Singh, Jagannath Dhal.
- Outcome:Zamindars dispossessed by 1800s.
Revolt of Moamarias (1769-1799)
- Cause:Low-caste peasants’ rebellion against Ahom kings of Assam.
- Location:
- Leaders:Moamarias (followers of Aniruddhadeva).
- Outcome:Weakened Ahom kingdom fell to Burmese invasion and later British rule.
Civil Uprisings in Gorakhpur, Basti, and Bahraich (1781)
- Cause:Excessive revenue demands by British East India Company.
- Location:Gorakhpur, Basti, and Bahraich regions.
- Outcome:Rebellion suppressed, British revenue official dismissed.
Revolt of Raja of Vizianagaram (1794)
- Cause:British betrayal of treaty and demand for tribute.
- Location:
- Leader:Raja Vizayaramaraju.
- Outcome:Raja died in battle, Vizianagaram under British rule.
Revolt of Dhundia in Bednur (1799-1800)
- Cause:Local Maratha leader against British rule after fall of Mysore.
- Location:Bednur region.
- Leader:Dhundia Wagh.
- Outcome:Dhundia killed in battle, but became a symbol of resistance.
Kerala Varma Pazhassi Raja (1797, 1800-1805)
- Location:Malabar region
- Leader:Kerala Varma Pazhassi Raja (“Lion of Kerala”)
- Cause:British violation of treaty, imposition of high taxes.
- Course of Events:
- Resisted Hyder Ali, Tipu Sultan, and British.
- 1793: Peasants rebel against high taxes under British-appointed Raja.
- 1797: Peace treaty with British.
- 1800: Renewed conflict over Wayanad territory.
- Led guerrilla warfare with Nairs, Mappilas, and Pathans.
- November 1805: Killed in a gunfight.
Civil Rebellion in Awadh (1799)
- Location:Awadh
- Leader:Wazir Ali Khan, former Nawab
- Cause:Ousted by British, revenge for replacement.
- Events:
- 1797: Wazir Ali Khan becomes Nawab with British help.
- Conflict with British, replaced by uncle.
- January 1799: Killed British resident and others in Benares (“Massacre of Benares”).
- Gathered rebel army, defeated by British.
- Surrendered, imprisoned in Calcutta.
Uprisings in Ganjam and Gumsur (1800, 1835-1837)
- Location:Ganjam district, Northern Circars
- Leaders:Strikara Bhanj (zamindar), Jlani Deo, Jagannath Deo, Dhananjaya Bhanj (Strikara’s son), Doora Bisayi
- Cause:Refusal to pay revenue, oppressive British collector.
- Events:
- 1797: Strikara Bhanj refuses to pay revenue.
- 1800: Open rebellion against British.
- Strikara joined by other zamindars.
- British capture Jagannath Deo (1804).
- Compromise: Strikara regains some control (1807-08).
- 1815: Dhananjaya Bhanj forces father to leave, rebels again.
- Strikara returns, regains zamindari (1819-1830).
- 1835: Dhananjaya rebels again due to arrears.
- Rebellion reduces British control, Dhananjaya dies (Dec. 1835).
- Doora Bisayi leads continued resistance.
- February 1837: Doora Bisayi captured, zamindari forfeited.
Uprisings in Palamau (1800-1802)
- Location:Palamau region
- Leader:Bhukhan Singh (Chero chief)
- Cause:Agrarian and feudal system issues.
- Events:
- 1800: Bhukhan Singh leads rebellion.
- British forces suppress rebellion over two years.
- 1802: Bhukhan Singh dies, rebellion ends.
Poligars’ Revolt (1795-1805)
- Location:South India (Tinneveli, Ramanathapuram, Sivaganga, Sivagiri, Madurai, North Arcot)
- Leaders:Polygars (palayakkarargal) – Kattabomman Nayakan (Panjalankurichi), Marudu brothers (Sivaganga), Oomathurai (Kattabomman’s brother), Yedaragunta poligar, Charagallu poligar.
- Cause:British control, taxation, loss of autonomy.
- Events (in phases):
- 1781: Nawab of Arcot cedes control to British, angering poligars.
- 1795-1799: First revolt led by Kattabomman Nayakan against high taxes.
- British capture and execute Kattabomman with associates.
- 1801: Second, more violent revolt by escaped poligars.
- Rebels capture forts, join Marudu brothers’ rebellion (suppressed Oct. 1801).
- British destroy Panjalankurichi fort, erase its name.
- 1803-1805: North Arcot poligars rebel against loss of revenue collection rights.
- British suppress rebellion, exile or pension some poligars.
Uprisings in Haryana Region (1803-1810)
- Location:Present-day Haryana
- Cause:British takeover after Treaty of Surji-Arjungaon (1803).
- Resistance:
- Sikh chiefs of Ambala, Karnal, and Thanesar.
- Muslim Bhatti Rajputs led by Zabita Khan and Khan Bahadur Khan in western Haryana.
- Jats and Ranghars in Rohtak, Bhiwani, and eastern Hisar.
- British Response:
- Military expeditions to suppress rebellions.
- Capture of Fatehabad, Sirsa, Rania, and Bhiwani.
- Conversion of Hansi fort into a military cantonment.
Diwan Velu Thampi’s Revolt (1808-1809)
- Location:Travancore
- Cause:Harsh British conditions following subsidiary alliance (1805).
- Leader:Diwan Velu Thampi (Prime Minister)
- Events:
- Velu Thampi opposed British interference and highhandedness.
- “Kundara Proclamation” called for armed resistance.
- Large-scale rebellion against British.
- Travancore Maharaja defected to British side.
- Velu Thampi committed suicide to avoid capture.
- Rebellion ended.
Disturbances in Bundelkhand (1808-1812)
- Location:Bundelkhand
- Cause:British conquest after Second Anglo-Maratha Wars (1803-1805).
- Resistance:
- Bundela chiefs from numerous forts (around 150).
- Lakshaman Dawa (Ajaygarh Fort) – surrendered in 1809.
- Darya Singh (Kalanjar Fort) – resistance suppressed in 1812.
- Gopal Singh (military adventurer) – eluded British capture for 4 years.
- British Response:
- Military suppression.
- “Ikarnamahs” – agreements binding Bundelkhand chieftains.
Parlakimedi Outbreak (1813-1834)
- Location:Parlakimedi, Ganjam district (Odisha)
- Leaders:Zamindars and rajas led by Narayan Deo and his family.
- Cause:Resistance against British control.
- Events:
- Narayan Deo’s initial rebellion (1768) led to British military action.
- Gajapathi Deo (Narayan Deo’s son) became zamindar.
- Continued resistance by Narayan Deo and family.
- George Russell appointed commissioner to suppress revolt (1832).
- Rebellion pacified by 1834.
Rising at Bareilly (1816)
- Location:Bareilly
- Cause:Imposition of police tax, religious tensions.
- Events:
- Mufti Muhammad Aiwaz petitions against police tax (March 1816).
- Police injure woman while collecting tax, sparking a clash.
- Muslims from nearby areas join rebellion.
- Rebels murder son of a British judge (April 1816).
- Uprising suppressed by British military (over 300 rebels killed/wounded/imprisoned).
Upsurge in Hathras (1817)
- Location:Hathras
- Cause:High revenue demands, resistance to fort dismantling.
- Leader:Dayaram, talukdar of Aligarh.
- Events:
- Dayaram resists high revenue demands, shelters fugitives.
- British attack Hathras fort (February 1817).
- Dayaram escapes but surrenders later, granted pension.
- Raja of Mursan also submits to British demands.
Paika Rebellion (1817-1818)
- Location:Odisha
- Cause:British land revenue policy, dispossession of Paiks.
- Leaders:Bakshi Jagabandhu Bidyadhar (military chief), Mukunda Deva (Raja of Khurda).
- Events:
- British conquest of Odisha (1803), dethronement of Raja weakens Paiks (hereditary militia).
- Land revenue policy angers zamindars and peasants.
- Khonds from Gumsur join forces with Paiks (March 1817).
- Jagabandhu leads rebellion, initial success forces British retreat.
- Rebellion spreads across Odisha, Jagabandhu declared outlaw.
- Guerilla warfare by rebels, brutal repression by British (1818).
- Priests sheltering Jagabandhu hanged.
- Jagabandhu surrenders (1825) – some sources say captured and died in captivity (1829).
- Rebellion leads to concessions by British – reduced land revenue, fixed tenures etc.
Waghera Rising (1818-1820)
- Location:Okha Mandal (Gujarat)
- Cause:Resentment against Gaekwad’s exactions supported by British.
- Events:
- Waghera chiefs raid British territory (1818-1819).
- Peace treaty signed in November 1820.
Ahom Revolt (1828)
- Location:Assam
- Cause:British renege on pledge to withdraw from Assam after First Burma War.
- Leaders:Gomdhar Konwar (Ahom prince), Dhanjay Borgohain, Jairam Khargharia Phukan.
- Events:
- British attempt to annex Ahom territories sparks rebellion.
- Rebels led by Gomdhar Konwar establish him as king.
- British adopt conciliatory approach, restore some territories to Assamese king.
Surat Salt Agitations (1840s)
- Location:Surat
- Cause:Anti-British sentiment, increased salt duty.
- Events:
- Public outrage over salt duty hike (1844) leads to attacks on Europeans.
- British back down and withdraw salt tax increase.
- Similar protests and government back down in 1848 against new weights and measures.
Kolhapur and Savantvadi Revolts (1844 onwards)
- Location:Kolhapur and Savantvadi (Maharashtra)
- Cause:Discontent with British administration.
- Events:
- Disbanded Gadkari soldiers (hereditary Maratha military) revolt in Kolhapur (1844).
- Occupy Samangarh and Bhudargarh forts.
- Savantvadi region with history of rebellion (1830, 1836, 1838) sees renewed uprising.
- British implement various laws to control the region.
Wahabi Movement (1820s onwards)
- Origin:Islamic revivalist movement founded by Syed Ahmed of Rai Bareilly.
- Cause:Opposition to Western influence on Islam, desire for pure Islamic society.
- Activities:
- Advocated return to Prophet’s time Islam.
- Declared Syed Ahmed as Imam (leader).
- Established nationwide organization with secret code and regional leaders (Khalifas).
- Based in Sithana (north-west India), with centers in Patna, Hyderabad etc.
- Declared Jihad against Sikh kingdom (pre-British rule).
- After British annexation of Punjab in 1849, focused attacks on British rule.
- Spread anti-British sentiment.
- British Response:
- Military operations against Wahabi base in Sithana (1860s).
- Court cases against Wahabis on sedition charges.
- Sporadic resistance continued till late 19th century.
Kuka Movement (1840s onwards)
- Location:Western Punjab
- Founder:Bhagat Jawahar Mal (Sian Saheb)
- Later Leader:Baba Ram Singh (founder of Namdhari Sikh sect)
- Cause:Religious and social reform, anti-British sentiment.
- Tenets:
- Abolition of caste system and discrimination within Sikhs.
- Discouragement of meat, alcohol, and drugs.
- Permission for intermarriage and widow remarriage.
- Women’s empowerment (leaving seclusion).
- Political Aims:
- Removal of British rule and restoration of Sikh rule in Punjab.
- Swadeshi (use of indigenous goods) and boycott of British products/education/laws (precursors to later nationalist movements).
- British Response:
- Suppressive measures (1863-1872).
- Deportation of Baba Ram Singh to Rangoon (1872).
Peasant Movements with Religious Overtones (Pre-1857)
Common Cause: Protests against exploitation by zamindars (landlords), moneylenders, and British policies. Aims included occupancy rights and reduced rents.
Narkelberia Uprising (1782-1831)
- Leader:Mir Nithar Ali (Titu Mir)
- Location:West Bengal
- Cause:Imposition of beard tax on Faraizi Muslims by Hindu landlords, oppression by British indigo planters.
- Significance:Considered the first armed peasant uprising against the British, later merged with the Wahabi Movement.
The Pagal Panthis (1825-1835)
- Location:Mymensingh district (Bengal)
- Founders:Karam Shah (founder), Tipu (son who led the movement)
- Participants:Hajong and Garo tribes
- Cause:Oppression by zamindars
- Actions:Refused to pay rent above a certain limit, attacked zamindars’ houses.
- Outcome:Violently suppressed by the government, but led to an equitable arrangement to protect peasants.
Faraizi Revolt (1838-1857)
- Leaders:Haji Shariatullah (founder), Dudu Miyan (son)
- Location:Eastern Bengal
- Religion:Followers of a Muslim sect advocating religious, social, and political reforms.
- Cause:Expelling British rule, supporting tenants against zamindars.
- Outcome:Most Faraizis joined the Wahabi movement.
- Note:Continued disturbances till 1857.
Moplah Uprisings (1836-1854)
- Location:Malabar
- Participants:Moplah Muslims
- Cause:Increased revenue demands, reduced land size, official oppression.
- Outcome:22 rebellions occurred, none successful.
Peasants’ Role in the 1857 Revolt
- Participation:Active in some areas, particularly western Uttar Pradesh.
- Alliances:United with local feudal leaders against British rule.
- Post-Revolt:Plight worsened due to British support for landed classes.
- Examples:
- Avadh: Land restored to taluqdars (landlords), peasants not protected by Rent Act.
- Some regions: Peasants faced additional taxes as punishment for rebellion.
Tribal Revolts Against British Rule
Mainland vs. North-Eastern Revolts
- Mainland Revolts (Focus: Land & Forests)
- Caused by:
- Land settlements disrupting tribal ownership traditions and social fabric.
- Loss of land due to agricultural expansion and influx of outsiders.
- Curtailment of shifting cultivation and restrictions on forest use (timber, grazing).
- Exploitation by police, traders, and moneylenders (outsiders).
- Intrusive general laws clashing with tribal customs.
- Christian missionaries seen as representatives of alien rule.
- North-Eastern Revolts (Focus: Autonomy & Identity)
- Differed due to:
- Less concern for nationalist struggle; focus on autonomy or independence.
- Control over land and forests, not agrarian-based rebellions.
- Later British entry and longer duration of revolts.
- De-sanskritization movements against Hindu influence (Meiteis vs. Brahmins).
- Differed due to:
- Caused by:
Characteristics of Tribal Revolts
- Tribal Identity & Solidarity:
- Unity based on ethnicity, targeting specific outsiders (moneylenders, traders).
- Resentment Against British Rule:
- Opposition to imposed laws disrupting traditional socio-economic systems.
- Loss of Land & Forest Rights:
- Land alienation due to private property laws, market forces, and infrastructure development.
- Messianic Leadership:
- Revolts led by charismatic figures promising an end to suffering from outsiders.
- Limited Success:
- Outdated weapons against British military superiority.
Important Tribal Movements
Focus: Resistance against British policies and collaborators (zamindars, jagirdars) in central, west-central, and southern India.
The Pahariyas (Rajmahal Hills)
- Livelihood:Shifting cultivation, forest produce.
- Cause of Conflict:Loss of land and forest due to expanding settled agriculture.
- Resistance:Raids on plains settlements, led by Raja Jagganath (1778).
- British Response:Brutal attacks, pacification attempts (allowances for good behavior).
Revolt led by Tilka Manjhi (Santhal Pargana)
- Leader:Tilka Manjhi (Santhal)
- Cause:Exploitation by revenue collectors, police, landlords’ agents, drought of 1770.
- Methods:Guerilla warfare with women’s participation, joint front with Paharia Sardars.
- Achievements:Captured Ramgarh Camp (1778), attacked Bhagalpur (1784), killed British magistrate.
- Outcome:Captured and hanged by British (1785).
Jungle Mahal Revolt/Chuar Uprising (Midnapore, Bankura, Purulia)
- Participants:Bhumij tribals (Chuars), jungle zamindars, paiks (guards).
- Causes:
- Increased revenue demands by zamindars.
- Demolishing mud forts of zamindars by British (1767).
- Replacement of local paiks with professional police.
- Land dispossession due to Bengal Regulations.
- Leaders:Jagannath Singh (zamindar, 1768), Shyam Ganjan, Subla Singh, Dubraj (sardars, 1771), Durjan Singh (zamindar, 1798).
- Events:
- Uprisings in 1768, 1771, 1798 (largest under Durjan Singh).
- Goals: Stop revenue hikes, defend traditional way of life.
- Outcome:All rebellions suppressed by British.
Common Themes:
- Clash between tribal and colonial lifestyles.
- Defense of land and traditional economic practices.
- Resistance against exploitation and outsiders.
Tamar Revolt (1798)
- Location:Tamar (Chotanagpur region)
- Leader:Bholanath Sahay (Singh in some sources)
- Cause:Opposition to British imposed systems, anger against outsiders (“diku”).
- Participants:Munda tribals and their chiefs.
- Outcome:Suppressed by British expedition led by Lt. Cooper.
Kol Mutiny (1831)
- Location:Chhotanagpur (Ranchi, Singhbhum, Hazaribagh, Palamau, western Manbhum)
- Participants:Kols and other tribes.
- Cause:Land transfers to outsiders, oppressive taxes, British policies disrupting social order.
- Leader:Buddho Bhagat
- Actions:Killed/burned property of about 1000 outsiders.
- Outcome:Suppressed by large-scale British military operations.
Ho and Munda Uprisings (1820-1837)
- Location:Singhbhum (Jharkhand) and Chotanagpur
- Events:
- 1820-1827: Ho revolt led by Raja of Parahat against British occupation of Singhbhum.
- 1831: Joint Ho and Munda rebellion against new revenue policy and Bengali migration.
- 1832-1837: Continued Ho operations.
- Cause:Opposition to British policies and migration disrupting traditional life.
Santhal Rebellions (1833, 1855-1856)
- Background:
- Santhals migrated to Rajmahal area in late 18th century.
- British encouraged Santhal settlement for revenue and cultivation.
- Damin-i-koh agreement (1832-33) allocated foothills for Santhal agriculture.
- Santhals lost land to Permanent Settlement and moneylenders.
- First Rebellion (1833):Dispute with Paharias over land use.
- Second Rebellion (1855-1856):
- Cause: Exploitation by zamindars and moneylenders.
- Leaders: Sidhu and Kanhu Murmu
- Goal: Establish autonomous Santhal state.
- Rebellion called “hul” (movement for liberation).
- Outcome: Brutally suppressed by British in 1856.
- Aftermath: Creation of Santhal Pargana with special laws.
Khond Uprisings (1837-1856)
- Location:Hilly tracts from Odisha to Andhra Pradesh (Srikakulam, Visakhapatnam)
- Leader:Chakra Bisoi (initial)
- Cause:Opposition to:
- Suppression of human sacrifice.
- New taxes.
- Entry of zamindars.
- Outcome:Ended with Chakra Bisoi’s disappearance.
- Note:Later Khond rebellion (1914) aimed for autonomy under independent rule.
Koya Revolts (1803-1886)
- Location:Eastern Godavari region (Andhra Pradesh)
- Participants:Koyas and Khonda Sara chiefs.
- Revolts:1803, 1840, 1845, 1858, 1861, 1862, 1879-1880 (led by Tomma Sora), 1886 (led by Raja Anantayyar)
- Cause:Exploitation by police and moneylenders, new regulations, loss of forest rights.
Bhil Revolts (1817-1913)
- Location:Western Ghats (mountain passes between north and Deccan)
- Cause:
- Economic distress.
- British misgovernment.
- Revolts:1817-19, 1825, 1831, 1846.
- Later Movement:Govind Guru led Bhils (south Rajasthan) to fight for an autonomous Bhil Raj (1913).
Koli Risings (1829, 1839, 1844-1848)
- Location:Areas near Bhils
- Cause:Resentment against British rule:
- Dismantling of Koli forts.
- Revolts:1829, 1839, 1844-1848.
Ramosi Risings (1822-1841)
- Location:Western Ghats
- Cause:Loss of livelihood due to:
- British annexation of Maratha territories.
- Loss of jobs held under Marathas.
- Leaders:Chittur Singh (1822), Umaji Naik (1825-26), Bapu Trimbakji Sawant (1825-26).
- Revolts:1822, 1825-26, 1829, 1839, 1840-41.
- Outcome:Mostly suppressed by British, some Ramosis recruited into British hill police.
Bokta Rising/Sardari Larai/Mukti Larai Movement (1858-1895)
- Location:Chotanagpur
- Cause:Regaining tribal land rights.
- Phases:
- Early (1858-1890s): Tribal tenants vs. landlords (rent increase, eviction, harassment).
- Later (1890s): Anti-European due to suspicion of collusion with landlords.
- Overall goal: End British rule as root cause of tribal problems.
- Methods:Traditional weapons (bows, arrows).
- Outcome:Unsuccessful due to lack of organization and leadership.
Birsa Munda Revolt (1890s-1900)
- Leader:Birsa Munda
- Location:Singhbhum and Ranchi districts (Chotanagpur)
- Movement Name:Ulgulan (“Great Tumult”)
- Cause:
- Disruption of traditional tribal life (social customs, land ownership).
- Zamindari system introducing landlords and tenant system.
- Exploitation by landlords (eviction, forced labor, debt).
- Goals:
- Religious and political independence.
- Establish a Munda Raj (Munda rule).
- Events:
- Birsa Munda’s arrest and imprisonment (1898) fueled rebellion.
- Revolt (Dec. 1899) targeted “dikus” (outsiders):
- Christian missionaries.
- Government officials.
- Brutal suppression by British.
- Birsa Munda’s death in prison (1900).
- Aftermath:
- Weakened movement.
- Government reforms:
- Abolished forced labor (begar).
- Tenancy Act of 1903 (recognized Munda land rights).
- Chotanagpur Tenancy Act of 1908.
- Birsa Munda became a legendary figure and inspiration for future movements.
Tana Bhagat Movement (1914-1921)
- Leader:Jatra Oraon (initially), Sibu Oraon (later)
- Location:Ranchi
- Nature:Primarily religious and non-violent.
- Cause:Agrarian discontent:
- Forced labor (begar) imposed by zamindars.
- Illegal rent increases.
- Exploitation by moneylenders and missionaries.
- Goal:Reorder Oraon society.
- Tana Bhagats: followers who discarded possessions and certain practices.
- Activities:
- Satyagraha (non-violent resistance) before Gandhi’s movement.
- Uniqueness:Different from violent revolts of the past.
- Later Developments:
- Joined Non-Cooperation Movement (1921).
Devi Movement (1922-1923)
- Location:South Gujarat
- Origin:Social movement led by Devi Salabai promoting hygiene and abstinence.
- Evolution:
- Spread to broader tribal region and Surat city.
- Targeted exploiters: landlords, moneylenders, liquor traders.
- Became part of the Non-Cooperation Movement (late 1922).
Tribal Movements of the North-East Frontier Region
Movements Before 1857
- Ahoms’ Revolt (1828-1833, Assam)
- Cause: Broken promises by British East India Company after Burmese War.
- Goal: Maintain Ahom kingdom’s integrity.
- Outcome: Suppressed, Ahom kingdom divided.
- Khasis’ Revolt (1830s, Jaintia & Garo Hills)
- Leader: Tirath Singh (Nunklow ruler)
- Cause: Opposition to British occupation of the hilly region.
- Outcome: Suppressed by British.
- Singphos’ Rebellion (1830s, Assam)
- Events:
- 1839: Murder of British political agent.
- 1843: Uprising led by Chief Nirang Phidu.
- Outcome: Ultimately suppressed by British.
- Events:
- Khasi Uprising (Early 1800s)
- Cause: British construction project bringing outsiders to the region.
- Leader: Tirath Singh (possibly linked to earlier Khasi revolt)
- Goal: Drive away outsiders, resist British rule.
- Outcome: Suppressed by British military by 1833.
- Singphos Rebellions (1830s-1840s, Assam)
- A series of uprisings against British rule.
- Events:
- 1839: Killing of British political agent.
- 1843: Uprising led by Chief Nirang Phidu.
- Outcome: All rebellions eventually suppressed.
- Other Movements:
- Syntengs of Jaintia Hills revolt (1860-1862).
- Phulaguri peasants’ rebellion (1861).
- Saflas revolt (1872-1873).
- Kacha Nagas of Cachhar uprising (1882).
- Women’s war in Manipur (1904).
Movements After 1857
- Kukis’ Revolt (1917-1919, Manipur)
- Cause: Resentment against British labor recruitment during WWI.
- Outcome: Suppressed by British.
- Revolts in Tripura
- (a) Parikshit Jamatia (1863): Against tax hike and outsider settlement.
- (b) Reangs’ revolt led by Ratnamani (1942-1943).
- (c) Bharti Singh (1920s): Similar causes to (a).
- Zeliangsong Movement (1920s, Manipur)
- Participants: Zemi, Liangmei, Rongmei tribes.
- Cause: British failure to protect them from Kuki violence (1917-1919).
- Naga Movement (1905-1931, Manipur)
- Leader: Jadonang
- Goal: Establish a Naga Raj (Naga rule), end British rule.
- Outcome: Suppressed by British.
- Heraka Cult (1930s, Manipur)
- Leader: Gaidinliu
- Goal: Religious movement opposing British rule.
- Outcome: Suppressed, but Kabui Naga Association formed (1946).
Weaknesses of Tribal Uprisings
- Limited Scope:
- Localized movements.
- Arose from specific local issues.
- Leadership:
- Traditional, semi-feudal leaders.
- Focused on preserving old ways, not offering new systems.
- Limited Goals:
- Reacted to common problems, not a unified national movement.
- Centuries-old methods and ideology.
- Uneven Response:
- British used concessions to divide opposition.
- Outmatched:
- Inferior weapons and tactics compared to the British.