CHAPTER-10 : Harappan Culture: Bronze Age Urbanization in the Indus Valley
Ancient History of India
OLD NCERT
Short Notes or Revision Notes
Indus Valley Civilization (Harappan Culture)
Discovery and Excavations
- First recognized by Cunningham (1853) with a Harappan seal.
- Major excavations:
- Mohenjo-daro (Sindh): R.D. Banerjee (1921), Marshall (1931), Mackay (1938)
- Harappa (Punjab): Daya Ram Sahni (1921), Vats (1940), Wheeler (1946)
- Other important sites: Kot Diji (Pakistan), Hakra region (Pakistan), Gandhara graves (Pakistan)
Extent and Sites
- Developed in northwestern India and Pakistan.
- Mature culture centered in Sindh and Punjab (Indus Valley).
- Spreads across parts of Punjab, Haryana, Gujarat, Rajasthan, western Uttar Pradesh.
- Nearly 2800 sites identified.
Major Cities
- Mature Phase:
- Harappa (Punjab)
- Mohenjo-daro (Sindh)
- Chanhu-daro (Sindh)
- Lothal (Gujarat)
- Kalibangan (Rajasthan)
- Banawali (Haryana)
- Sutkagendor & Surkotada (coastal Gujarat)
- Later Phase:
- Rangpur & Rojdi (Gujarat)
- Dholavira (Gujarat)
- Rakhigarhi (Haryana)
Key Points
- “Harappan” refers to the first discovery site.
- “Indus Valley Civilization” reflects its geographic location.
- Mature Indus Valley Civilization flourished around 2600-1900 BCE.
Town Planning and Structures
Citadel and Lower Town
- Both Harappa and Mohenjo-daro had a citadel (acropolis) for the ruling class.
- Lower town with brick houses for common people.
Grid System
- Houses arranged in a grid system with intersecting roads.
- Mohenjo-daro had a more elaborate layout.
Public Buildings
- Great Bath (Mohenjo-daro):Large brick tank for ritual bathing (11.88 x 7.01 m, 2.43 m deep) with changing rooms, water source, and drainage.
- Granaries:
- Mohenjo-daro: Largest granary (45.71 x 15.23 m).
- Harappa: Complex of 12 granaries (each 15.23 x 6.09 m) near the river bank.
- Possible Laborer Barracks (Harappa):Two-roomed structures.
- Possible Granaries (Kalibangan):Brick platforms.
Drainage System
- Highly developed drainage system in Mohenjo-daro.
- Every house had a courtyard and bathroom connected to street drains (covered with brick or stone slabs).
- Similar drainage systems found in Kalibangan and Banawali.
Other Features
- Fire altars:Found in Kalibangan and Lothal (possible sacrificial sites).
- Wells:
- Mohenjo-daro: Estimated 700 wells.
- Kalibangan: Many houses had their own wells.
Agriculture
Crops and Evidence
- Grains:Two types of wheat, barley (substantial amount at Banawali), rice (Lothal, 1800 BC).
- Cotton:Indus Valley people were the first to cultivate cotton (Greeks called the area “Sindon” from Sindh).
- Millets:Found in Gujarat sites.
- Evidence:
- Furrows at Kalibangan (pre-Harappan) indicate ploughed fields in Rajasthan.
- Terracotta plough models from Cholistan and Banawali.
- Possible ploughed field at Kalibangan (Early Harappan).
Storage
- Food grains stored in large granaries at Mohenjo-daro, Harappa, and possibly Kalibangan.
Domestication of Animals
- Horses:Evidence debated. Possible remains at Surkotada (2000 BC).
- Elephants:Domesticated by Harappans in Gujarat (unlike Mesopotamians).
- Transportation:Terracotta models suggest bullock carts were used.
Technology and Crafts
Materials
- Copper:Obtained from Rajasthan (Khetri mines) and Baluchistan.
- Tin:Possibly from Afghanistan or Hazaribagh/Bastar (India).
- Bronze:Made from copper and tin (lower tin content than Mesopotamia).
- Textiles:Cotton and wool fabrics woven (evidence from cloth and spindle whorls).
Crafts
- Bricklaying:Large brick structures indicate skilled masons.
- Boat-making
- Seal making
- Terracotta manufacturing
- Pottery:
- Faience:Miniature pots (Mohenjo-daro, Harappa).
- Black Harappan Ware:Large jars with thick black clay coating (found at Omani sites).
Trade
- Possible trade with Mesopotamia:
- Evidence from Mesopotamian texts mentioning Meluhha (Indus Valley?) and its goods (carnelian, lapis lazuli, copper, gold, wood).
- Seafaring suggested by Mesopotamian references.
- Other materials:
- Gold:Possibly from Karnataka.
- Precious stones:Possibly from Gujarat, Iran, Afghanistan.
Trade and Commerce
- Trade Network:
- Rajasthan
- Afghanistan and Iran (trading colony in northern Afghanistan)
- Mesopotamia (Tigris & Euphrates basins)
- Possible Trade Strategies:
- Commercial links with shell-producing areas (Nageshwar, Balakot).
- Settlements near resources (Shortughai – lapis lazuli, Lothal – carnelian, steatite, metal).
- Expeditions to source materials (Khetri region – copper, south India – gold).
Social Organization
- Social Hierarchy:Evidence suggests a three-tiered society (citadel – elite, middle town – bureaucrats, lower town – commoners).
- Burial Practices:Primarily pit burials. Ornaments found with some burials (Harappa cemetery).
Religion
- Male Deity:Three-horned god depicted in yogi position, surrounded by animals (elephant, tiger, rhinoceros, buffalo, deer). Found on a seal.
- Tree and Animal Worship:
- Tree worship practiced.
- Animals worshipped, especially the one-horned unicorn (rhinoceros) and the humped bull.
Art and Crafts
- Writing:Indus Valley script developed.
- Weights and Measures:Precise system of weights (usually chert) for trade.
- Pottery:Skilled potters using the potter’s wheel.
Specific Art Forms
- Seals and Sealings:Most impressive artistic creations (2000+ found). Made of steatite or faience, used as symbols of authority.
- Metalwork:Beautiful metal images created by artisans.
- Terracotta Figurines:Abundant figures made of fired clay.
- Stonework:
- Dholavira citadel: Most impressive Indus Valley citadel, built with stone.
- Dholavira construction techniques:
- Dressed stone combined with mud bricks.
- Stone slabs used in three burial types, including one with a Megalithic-like stone circle.
End and Afterlife
Maturity
- Nearly 2800 Harappan sites identified.
- Over half are early/post-urban sites.
- 1022 mature Harappan settlements:
- 406 in Pakistan.
- 616 in India.
Post-Urban Phase (1900-1200 BC)
- Flourished in some areas after decline of major centers.
- Also called Sub-Indus culture.
- Examples:
- Prabhas Patan & Rangpur (Gujarat).
- Ahar (Udaipur).
- Swat Valley (Pakistan).
- Manda (Jammu), Chandigarh & Sanghol (Punjab), Daulatpur & Mitthal (Haryana), Alamgirpur & Hulas (UP).
- Possible adaptations:
- Rice cultivation at Daulatpur and Hulas.
- Cotton production at Alamgirpur (based on pottery impressions).
Possible Causes of Decline
- Shift in rivers (Yamuna & Sutlej away from Saraswati/Hakra) around 1700 BC (environmental factor).
| SIND | CHOLISTAN | |
| TOTAL NUMBER OF SITES | 106 | 239 |
| EARLY HARAPPAN SITES | 52 | 37 |
| MATURE HARAPPAN SITES | 65 | 136 |
| MATURE HARAPPAN SETTLEMENTS ON NEW SITES | 43 | 132 |
| EARLY HARAPPAN SITES ABANDONEDD | 29 | 33 |
Late Harappan Culture and Decline
- Possible Signs of Foreign Influence:
- Exotic tools and pottery appear in the Indus basin.
- Hoards of jewelry and jumbled burials found at some sites.
- New styles of weapons (axes, daggers) in upper levels of Mohenjo-daro.
- New pottery types in some Harappan sites of Baluchistan.
- Evidence of horses and Bactrian camels in Baluchistan (1700 BC).
Origins and Successors
- Early Settlements:
- Pre-Harappan agricultural settlements in Hakra area (Cholistan desert) around 4000 BC.
- First agricultural settlements in eastern Baluchistan around 7000 BC.
- Rahman Dheri: Early town with planned features in northern Baluchistan.
Discontinuity with Vedic Culture:
- Indus Valley lacked features mentioned in the Rig Veda (planned towns, crafts, commerce, large brick structures).
Discontinuity After Decline:
- Urbanism disappeared with the Harappan decline.
- Script, burnt bricks, and towns were absent for about 1500 years.
- Brahmi script (later) written left-to-right, unlike Indus Valley script.
- No clear connection between Harappan and Northern Black Polished Ware pottery.
Additional Notes
- Chanhudaro:Small settlement focused on crafts (bead-making, shell-working, metalworking, etc.).
- Nageshwar & Balakot:Coastal settlements specializing in shellwork production.
- Trade Network:Finished products from these specialized centers reached larger urban centers.
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