The Revolt of 1857
India Struggle for Independence
Revision Notes or Short Notes
Part-1
Start of the Revolt:
- May 11, 1857: Sepoys from Meerut mutiny, cross Yamuna River, and reach Delhi.
- Sepoys seek legitimacy by appealing to Bahadur Shah II, the Mughal Emperor (a figurehead).
- Bahadur Shah is proclaimed leader (Shahinshah-e-Hindustan).
- Delhi captured, British officials killed, public offices destroyed.
Significance of Delhi:
- Provided a rallying point for rebels by symbolizing past Mughal glory.
- Marked the beginning of a widespread rebellion across North and Central India.
Sepoy Discontent:
- Several incidents prior to Meerut mutiny indicated sepoy resentment:
- Berhampur (March 1857): Sepoys refuse new Enfield rifles, regiment disbanded.
- Mangal Pandey (34th Native Infantry): Opens fire on British officer, executed.
- 7th Oudh Regiment: Defies officers, faces disbandment.
Spread of the Rebellion:
- Kanpur, Lucknow, Benares, Allahabad, Bareilly, Jagdishpur, Jhansi – all experienced rebel activity.
- Anti-British sentiment fueled the rebellion.
Leadership:
- In the absence of established leaders, rebels turned to traditional figures:
- Kanpur: Nana Saheb (adopted son of last Peshwa) leads the rebellion.
- Lucknow: Begum Hazrat Mahal (wife of deposed Nawab) takes charge.
- Bareilly: Khan Bahadur (descendant of Rohilkhand ruler) commands the rebels.
Overall Impact:
- Nearly half the Company’s sepoy force (232,224) rebelled.
- The rebellion posed a significant challenge to British rule in India.
Part-2
The Sepoy Rebellion of 1857: Leaders and Causes
Leadership in the Rebellion
- Kunwar Singh (Jagdishpur):A zamindar wronged by the British, he joined the sepoys’ revolt.
- Rani Lakshmibai (Jhansi):Fought the British after they annexed her state using the Doctrine of Lapse.
- Other Centers:The rebellion spread across Bengal and some parts of Bombay presidencies. Only Madras remained loyal.
Causes of the Sepoy Discontent
- Economic Disparity:Despite prestige, sepoy service offered less economic stability compared to pre-British times.
- Religious Concerns:
- The introduction of greased cartridges (believed to be made of cow and pig fat) offended sepoys’ religious beliefs.
- Campaigns abroad (Burma, Afghanistan) made it difficult to follow caste restrictions, leading to social alienation upon return.
- The Company’s growing disregard for sepoys’ religious needs caused friction.
British Efforts to Manage Sepoy Discontent
- Initial Accommodation:The Company initially allowed sepoys to follow religious customs within cantonments.
- Increased Difficulties:Expansion of operations made religious accommodation harder.
- Caste restrictions hindered military effectiveness.
- Discouraging Brahmin recruitment proved unsuccessful.
Examples of Sepoy Grievances
- 1824:The 47th Regiment refused to travel to Burma fearing loss of caste due to crossing the sea.
- Afghan War:Sepoys forced to eat/drink anything during the war faced social exclusion upon return for violating caste rules.
Conclusion:
- Religious and caste concerns, along with economic anxieties, proved more powerful than the prestige of serving the Company, ultimately leading to the Sepoy Mutiny.
Part-3
Sepoy Discontent: Beyond Religion
Religious Issues:
- Rumors of forced conversions by Christian missionaries fueled sepoy anxieties.
- Open preaching by missionaries in cantonments offended religious sensibilities.
- Fears about bone dust in flour and beef/pork fat in Enfield rifle cartridges heightened religious concerns.
Economic Disparity:
- Sepoy pay was low (Rs. 7 for infantry, Rs. 27 for cavalry).
- Cavalrymen had to bear significant expenses from their pay.
- Sepoys felt discriminated against compared to higher-paid British counterparts.
- Limited promotion opportunities and racial prejudice added to the discontent.
Social Connection:
- Sepoys, as part of the rural population, shared the general resentment towards British rule.
- A military officer warned Lord Dalhousie that infringing upon the rights of the people could lead to sepoy disloyalty.
Conclusion:
- Sepoy discontent went beyond religious anxieties. Poor pay, discrimination, and a sense of being disconnected from societal concerns fueled their growing resentment against the British.
Part-4
The Sepoy Mutiny: Beyond Military Discontent
Sepoys Connected to Oudh:
- Oudh provided a large number of sepoys (75,000).
- Sepoys felt the impact of British policies like land revenue changes in Oudh.
- Petitions (14,000) from sepoys highlighted hardships faced due to the revenue system.
- A Delhi rebel proclamation reflected sepoys’ awareness of the population’s suffering under British rule.
Sepoy Mutiny and Civil Rebellion:
- The sepoy revolt triggered a rebellion amongst the civilian population, particularly in North-Western Provinces and Oudh.
- Sepoy action emboldened the population, leading to widespread expression of grievances.
- Government buildings were attacked, treasuries plundered, and prisons opened.
Social Base of the Rebellion:
- The rebellion involved various social groups: landowners, peasants, artisans, religious figures, civil servants, shopkeepers, and boatmen.
- The sepoy mutiny snowballed into a popular uprising.
Part-5
British Policies and Discontent
Impact on Peasants:
- Excessive taxes led to widespread debt and poverty.
- Revenue focus: Maximizing revenue with minimal effort.
- Hasty land settlements ignored land resources.
- Bareilly (1812): Revenue increased by Rs. 14.73 lakh in short time.
- Coercive revenue collection: Torture used to collect taxes (e.g., Rohilkhand: 2.37 lakh coercive actions, 1848-56).
- Reluctance to grant remission even in difficult situations.
Impact on Landowners:
- Oudh (a center of the Revolt): Taluqdars (landowners) lost power and privileges.
- Confiscation of estates left 21,000 taluqdars impoverished and resentful.
Conclusion:
- British policies like excessive taxes, harsh revenue collection, and dispossession of landowners created widespread discontent that fueled the Sepoy Mutiny.
Part-6
Broader Discontent with British Rule
Impact on Artisans:
- Annexation of Indian states reduced patronage for artisans.
- British policy favored British goods, harming Indian handicrafts.
- Skilled artisans lost income with no viable alternatives.
Impact on Religion and Culture:
- British social reforms (influenced by utilitarianism) were seen as a threat to traditions.
- Orthodox Hindus and Muslims feared religious and cultural destruction.
- Reform measures were viewed as aiding Christian missionary efforts.
- This led to religious opposition to British rule.
Nature of the Rebellion:
- Unclear if the Uprising was Planned or Spontaneous:
- Lack of evidence from the rebels’ side makes it difficult to say for sure.
- Leaders’ actions suggest no major pre-existing plan.
- Bahadur Shah (Delhi) and Rani Lakshmibai (Jhansi) initially seemed surprised by the revolt.
- Links between Nana Saheb/Maulvi Ahmad Shah and cantonments remain unproven.
- The purpose of circulating chapatis and lotus flowers is unclear.
- Widespread Uprising: Despite the uncertainty about planning, the revolt became widespread within a month.
Part-7
Organization of the Rebellion
Efforts After Delhi’s Capture:
- Letters sent to neighboring rulers seeking support and participation.
- Establishment of an administrative court in Delhi (10 members, 6 military, 4 civilian).
- Decisions made by majority vote, ruling in the Emperor’s name.
- Similar attempts at organization in other centers.
Unifying Figure: Bahadur Shah Zafar
- Recognized as Emperor by all rebel leaders.
- Coins minted and orders issued in his name.
- Khan Bahadur Khan in Bareilly administered under the Mughal Emperor’s name.
- Delhi seen as a central point for the rebellion.
Challenges Faced:
- Limited resources: Difficulty in acquiring arms and ammunition beyond initial captures.
- Inferior weaponry: Facing modern British arms with swords and pikes.
- Lack of communication: Inability to coordinate effectively between rebel groups.
- Isolated struggles: Each center fighting independently, hindering mutual support.
Impact:
- Despite organizational limitations, the rebels fought for over a year against heavy odds.
Part-8
The Sepoy Mutiny: Limited Support and Leadership
Limited Support for the Rebellion:
- Merchants, intelligentsia, and some Indian rulers did not join the rebellion.
- Some rulers actively supported the British, fearing the Doctrine of Lapse.
- Almost half the Indian soldiers remained loyal to the British and fought against the rebels.
- The British recaptured Delhi using a force with a significant number of Indian soldiers.
Leadership Issues:
- Bahadur Shah Zafar and his wife lacked faith in the sepoys and negotiated with the British.
- Many taluqdars (landowners) focused on protecting their own interests, switching sides when convenient.
- Lack of a shared vision for the future beyond opposing British rule.
- John Lawrence (British official) believed a strong rebel leader could have significantly challenged British rule.
Rebellion Despite Weaknesses:
- The rebels displayed courage and commitment to their cause.
- Thousands fought and died for their beliefs.
The Fall of the Rebellion
- Delhi fell on September 20, 1857, a major blow to the rebellion.
- Key rebel figures:
- Rani Lakshmibai of Jhansi died fighting in June 1858, earning British respect for her bravery.
- Nana Saheb escaped to Nepal in 1859.
- Kunwar Singh died in May 1858, a thorn in the British side until his death.
- Tantia Tope was captured and executed by the British in April 1859.
Legacy of the Rebellion:
- The rebellion, though unsuccessful, challenged British dominance in India.
- The sepoys’ act of fighting for freedom is considered a patriotic and progressive step.
- The rebellion served as inspiration for future Indian independence movements.