Chatper-17
The Rise of New Actors in the Indian Struggle for Independence
Arora IAS Class Notes
Swarajists and No-Changers (1922-1926)
- Context: Following Gandhi’s arrest (March 1922) and the suspension of the Non-Cooperation Movement, disagreements arose within the Congress about the future course of action.
Swarajists (Pro-changers):
- Leaders: R. Das, Motilal Nehru, Ajmal Khan
- Advocated entering legislative councils (established under the Government of India Act 1919) to:
- Expose their weaknesses (“end or mend”)
- Use them as platforms for political struggle (“wreck them from within”)
- Maintain public morale
No-Changers:
- Leaders: Rajagopalachari, Vallabhbhai Patel, Rajendra Prasad, M.A. Ansari
- Opposed council entry and favored:
- Focus on “constructive work” (e.g., khadi production, national education)
- Maintaining the boycott of British institutions
- Preparing for renewed civil disobedience
Compromise (September 1923):
- Swarajists allowed to contest elections as a separate group within Congress.
- Swarajist Manifesto (October 1923):
- Condemned British rule and its “selfish interests.”
- Vowed to present the demand for self-government in councils.
- Promised to obstruct government functioning if demands rejected.
Gandhi’s Stance:
- Initially opposed council entry but gradually shifted towards reconciliation.
- Impressed by Swarajist performance in 1923 elections (42 out of 141 elected seats) and their uncompromising attitude.
- Agreed to Swarajists working in councils as part of Congress (1924).
Swarajist Activity (1923-1926):
- Achievements:
- Formed coalitions with other parties to outvote the government.
- Delivered powerful speeches on self-government, civil liberties, and industrialization.
- Elected Vithalbhai Patel as Speaker of Central Legislative Assembly (1925).
- Defeated the Public Safety Bill (1928).
- Exposed limitations of the Montford Reforms.
- Demonstrated the potential for creative use of councils.
- Drawbacks:
- Lacked a strategy to connect legislative actions with mass movements.
- Relied solely on newspapers for public communication.
- Limitations of obstructionist tactics.
- Difficulty maintaining unity with coalition partners.
- Susceptibility to the allure of power and office.
- Failed to support the peasant movement in Bengal, alienating Muslim members.
No-Changers’ Constructive Work (1922-1926):
- Focus on social and economic initiatives:
- Establishing ashrams for work among tribals and lower castes.
- Promoting khadi production and national education.
- Working towards Hindu-Muslim unity, removing untouchability, and boycotting foreign goods.
- Providing flood relief.
- Limitations:
- National education primarily benefited urban middle class and rich peasants.
- Enthusiasm for national education waned with time.
- Khad promotion was challenging due to its higher cost compared to imported cloth.
- Untouchability campaign neglected the economic issues of the landless and agricultural laborers, who were mostly untouchables.
Outcome:
- Both Swarajists and No-Changers eventually reunited for future struggles.
- The Swarajist experiment highlighted the limitations of legislative politics while demonstrating their potential for disruption.
- The No-Changers’ constructive work laid the groundwork for future mass mobilization.
Emergence of New Forces in the Indian Independence Movement (1920s)
Context:
- The 1920s witnessed a significant shift in the Indian independence movement.
- This period saw the entry of the masses, crystallization of political ideologies, and influence of international movements.
New Forces:
- Spread of Marxist and Socialist Ideas:
- Inspired by socialist thinkers and the Soviet Revolution.
- Led to the rise of a left wing within the Congress (e.g., Jawaharlal Nehru, Subhash Chandra Bose).
- Advocated for:
- Purna Swaraj (complete independence).
- Combining nationalism with social justice.
- Addressing internal class oppression.
- Communist Party of India (CPI) formed in 1920 (Tashkent).
- Meerut Conspiracy Case (1929) – crackdown on communist leaders.
- Workers’ and peasants’ parties emerged.
- Activism of Indian Youth:
- Student leagues and conferences gained momentum.
- Leaders like Jawaharlal Nehru participated in these events.
- Peasants’ Agitations:
- Demanded revision of tenancy laws, lower rents, and debt relief.
- Occurred in various regions like UP, Andhra, Rajasthan, Bombay, Madras, and Gujarat (Bardoli Satyagraha led by Vallabhbhai Patel in 1928).
- Growth of Trade Unionism:
- Led by All India Trade Union Congress (AITUC) founded in 1920.
- Leaders: Lala Lajpat Rai (President), Dewan Chaman Lal (General Secretary).
- Major strikes in Kharagpur Railway Workshops, Tata Steel Works, Bombay Textile Mills, Buckingham Carnatic Mills, etc.
- First May Day celebration in India (Madras, 1923).
- Caste Movements:
- Addressed social inequalities and discrimination.
- Included:
- Justice Party (Madras)
- Self-Respect Movement (Periyar, Madras)
- Satyashodhak Samaj (Maharashtra)
- Movements led by Ambedkar (Maharashtra), K. Aiyappan & C. Kesavan (Kerala), Fazl-i-Hussain (Punjab)
- Revolutionary Activity with Socialist Leanings:
- Aimed for armed struggle with socialist ideals.
- Groups:
- Hindustan Republican Association (HRA) in Punjab, UP, Bihar
- Yugantar, Anushilan, Chittagong Revolt Group (Surya Sen) in Bengal
Revival of Revolutionary Activity in the 1920s
Context:
- Following the Non-Cooperation Movement’s withdrawal, some revolutionaries felt disillusioned with non-violent methods.
- They weren’t drawn to Swarajists’ parliamentary approach or the No-Changers’ constructive work.
Reasons for Renewed Activity:
- Release of revolutionaries after WWI (amnesty for a peaceful environment).
- Disillusionment with the Non-Cooperation Movement’s end.
- Attraction to violent methods for achieving independence.
Leaders:
- Jogesh Chandra Chatterjee, Surya Sen, Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev, Chandrasekhar Azad, Shiv Verma, Bhagwati Charan Vohra, Jaidev Kapur, Jatin Das
Two Major Strands:
- Punjab-UP-Bihar Region:
- Hindustan Republican Association (HRA) most prominent group.
- Bengal:
- Yugantar, Anushilan Samiti, and later Chittagong Armory Raid group (Surya Sen).
Major Influences:
- Rise of working-class trade unionism (potential revolutionary force).
- Success of the Russian Revolution and the Soviet state.
- Growth of communist groups and socialist ideals.
- Journals and publications glorifying revolutionary sacrifice (Atmashakti, Sarathi, Bijoli).
- Popular novels like Bandi Jiwan and Pather Dabi (government bans increased their appeal).
Revolutionary Activity in Punjab-UP-Bihar (1920s)
Hindustan Republican Association (HRA)/Army
- Founded in October 1924 (Kanpur) by Ramprasad Bismil, Jogesh Chandra Chatterjee, and Sachin Sanyal.
- Aimed to overthrow British rule through armed revolution and establish a “Federal Republic of United States of India” with adult franchise.
Kakori Robbery (August 1925)
- HRA’s most significant action.
- Revolutionaries looted a train carrying government cash near Lucknow.
- Government crackdown led to arrests, imprisonments, and executions (including Ramprasad Bismil, Ashfaqullah Khan, Sachindra Nath Sanyal, and Rajendra Lahiri).
Hindustan Socialist Republican Association (HSRA)
- Formed in September 1928 (Delhi) by younger revolutionaries inspired by socialist ideals.
- Leaders: Chandrashekhar Azad, Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev Thapar, Bhagwati Charan Vohra, Bejoy Kumar Sinha, Shiv Verma, Jaidev Kapur.
- Adopted socialism as its official goal and functioned with collective leadership.
Lahore Conspiracy Case (December 1928)
- Lala Lajpat Rai’s death during an anti-Simon Commission protest fueled revolutionary action.
- Bhagat Singh and Shivram Rajguru assassinated John P. Saunders (mistaken for James Scott, responsible for the lathi charge on Lala Lajpat Rai’s procession).
- Chandrashekhar Azad killed an Indian constable pursuing Bhagat Singh and Rajguru.
- Justification: Upholding national honor by avenging Lala Lajpat Rai’s death.
Bombing in Central Legislative Assembly (April 1929)
- Bhagat Singh and Batukeshwar Dutt aimed a non-lethal bomb at the Assembly to protest against the Public Safety Bill and Trade Disputes Bill.
- Sought to use the trial as a platform for their ideology.
- Bhagat Singh’s quote: “Force…when used in the furtherance of a legitimate cause, it has its moral justification.”
Crackdown and Martyrdom
- Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev, and Rajguru were tried and sentenced to death in the Lahore Conspiracy Case.
- Jatin Das died in jail after a 63-day hunger strike protesting prison conditions.
- Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev, and Rajguru were hanged on March 23, 1931 (Shaheed Diwas).
- Chandrashekhar Azad died during a shootout with police in Allahabad (February 1931) after being betrayed by an associate.
Revolutionary Activity in Bengal (1920s)
Reorganized Activities:
- Many revolutionary groups revived underground activities.
- Some revolutionaries collaborated with the Congress (Swarajists) for mass outreach and organizational support.
- Split in Bengal Congress after C.R. Das’s death (1925):
- M. Sengupta (Anushilan) faction.
- Subhash Chandra Bose (Yugantar) faction.
Actions by Reorganized Groups:
- Gopinath Saha’s assassination attempt on Calcutta Police Commissioner Charles Tegart (1924) – resulted in a bystander’s death.
- Government crackdown with new ordinances led to arrests (including Subhash Bose) and execution of Gopinath Saha.
Chittagong Armory Raid (April 1930):
- Led by Surya Sen (former Non-Cooperation Movement participant and Congressman).
- Aim: Challenge British power, seize arms, and disrupt communication and transportation.
- 65 revolutionaries under the “Indian Republican Army – Chittagong Branch” participated.
- Raid achieved initial success with capturing armories, hoisting the national flag, and forming a provisional revolutionary government.
- Surya Sen’s arrest (February 1933) and execution (January 1934).
Aspects of the New Phase:
- Increased participation of young women:
- Pritilata Waddedar (died in raid).
- Kalpana Dutt (life sentence).
- Santi Ghosh & Suniti Chandheri (district magistrate assassination, December 1931).
- Bina Das (attempted assassination of governor, February 1932).
- Shift towards group action:
- Targeted attacks on colonial state institutions.
- Aiming to inspire youth and demoralize British bureaucracy.
- Reduced emphasis on Hindu religious elements:
- Facilitated Muslim participation (e.g., Satar, Mir Ahmed in Surya Sen’s group).
Drawbacks:
- Persistence of conservative elements within the movement.
- Lack of broader socio-economic goals.
- Failure to support Muslim peasantry against zamindars (landlords) by those collaborating with the Congress.
Official Reaction to Revolutionary Activity
- Initial Panic and Repression:
- Government enacted 20 repressive laws.
- Police crackdown on revolutionaries.
- Punitive actions like village burnings and fines in Chittagong.
- Jawaharlal Nehru’s arrest and imprisonment for sedition (1933) due to his support for revolutionaries.
Ideological Rethinking Among Revolutionaries
Mid-1920s Onwards:
- Hindustan Republican Association (HRA):
- Advocated for socialist principles and abolition of exploitative systems.
- Proposed nationalization of key industries and transportation.
- Emphasized organized and armed revolution with labor and peasant participation.
Late 1920s:
- Shift from Individual Action:
- Bhagat Singh and associates moved towards mass politics.
- Bismil urged youth to abandon violent actions and work for Hindu-Muslim unity.
- Bhagat Singh’s involvement in open organizations like Punjab Naujawan Bharat Sabha and Lahore Students’ Union.
Redefining Revolution:
- Beyond National Liberation:
- Goal became establishing a socialist order ending exploitation.
- Bhagat Singh’s Views:
- Revolution is not just violence but dismantling unjust order.
- Socialism as ending capitalism and class exploitation.
- Importance of mass movement led by the exploited.
- “Real revolutionary armies are in villages and factories.”
- Propaganda by Deed:
- Individual acts of heroism to inspire and spread revolutionary ideas.
- Using court trials as platforms for propaganda.
Lasting Impact:
- Revolutionaries redefined revolution as social transformation, not just militancy.
- Importance of mass mobilization and class consciousness.
- Bhagat Singh’s martyrdom and ideology continued to inspire future generations.
Important Leaders
1.Subhas Chandra Bose
Birth and Early Life
- Born: January 23, 1897, Cuttack, Orissa
- Influenced by Vivekananda’s teachings and Chittaranjan Das’s mentorship
- Cleared Indian Civil Services exam but resigned
Association with Congress
- Advocated for complete independence (Swaraj)
- Participated in Salt Satyagraha but opposed halt to Civil Disobedience Movement
- Elected Congress President in 1938 and 1939
- Resigned due to ideological differences with Gandhi and formed Forward Bloc
Indian National Army (INA)
- Reached Singapore in 1943 and formed the Azad Hind Government and INA
- INA comprised Indian prisoners of war and civilians in Southeast Asia
- Fought Allied forces in Imphal and Burma
- INA trials sparked protests across India
Death
- Reportedly died in a plane crash in Taiwan in 1945, though theories surround his death
2. Chaman Lall
Early Life and Education
- Born: October 30, 1892
- Earned honors degree in jurisprudence from Jesus College, Oxford
- Became barrister at Middle Temple in London
Freedom Movement Leader
- Founded All India Trade Union Congress (1920) and served as President (1927)
- Advocated for worker rights: reduced work hours, minimum employment age
- Represented workers at Round Table Conference and International Labour Organization conferences
- Elected to Central Legislative Assembly (1924-1931, 1944-1946) and Punjab Legislative Assembly (1937-1945)
Constituent Assembly
- Elected in 1946, resigned after two years
- Contributed to committees on steering and provincial constitutions
3. Surya Sen
Early Life and Education (1894-1918)
- Born: March 22, 1894, Chittagong (present-day Bangladesh)
- Inspired by the Indian freedom movement while a student (1916)
- Joined revolutionary group Anushilan Samiti
Chittagong Armoury Raid (1930)
- Planned a raid to seize arms and ammunition (1930)
- Led associates in raids on police and auxiliary force armories on April 18, 1930
- Achieved partial success: cut communication lines, hoisted Indian flag
- Escaped with associates after the raid
Capture and Martyrdom (1933-1934)
- Betrayed and arrested in February 1933
- Executed by hanging on January 12, 1934 (age 39)
Legacy
- Remembered as a brave martyr for Indian independence
- Honored by postage stamps in India and Bangladesh
4. Jogesh Chandra Chatterjee
Revolutionary Activities
- Member of Anushilan Samiti, founder of HRA (later HSRA)
- Arrested multiple times, imprisoned for life in Kakori conspiracy case (1926)
Post-Independence
- Joined Congress Socialist Party briefly, then formed Revolutionary Socialist Party (1940)
- Held leadership positions in RSP and trade unions
- Returned to Congress, became Rajya Sabha member from Uttar Pradesh (1956-1960)
5. Sukhdev Thapar
Early Life and Influences
- Born in Ludhiana, Punjab
- Rebellious spirit: refused to salute British officers at school
- Motivated by uncle’s arrest to fight for freedom
Revolutionary Activities
- Joined Bhagat Singh’s Naujawan Bharat Seva
- Promoted national consciousness among youth
- Active member of Hindustan Socialist Republican Association (HSRA)
- Studied international revolutions, inspired by Russia
Lala Lajpat Rai’s Death and Revenge
- Enraged by British police brutality on Lala Lajpat Rai
- Planned to avenge Rai’s death (mistakenly killed Saunders)
- Escaped Lahore with Bhagat Singh and Rajguru
Capture, Trial, and Execution
- Arrested by British authorities
- Sentenced to death by hanging with Bhagat Singh and Rajguru (1931)
- Staged hunger strike for better prison conditions
Legacy
- Remembered for his patriotism, courage, and sacrifice for India’s freedom
- Inspired future generations of revolutionaries
- Chandra Shekhar Azad
Birth:
- Born on 23rd July 1906 in Alirajpur district of Madhya Pradesh.
Early Life:
- Joined Non-Cooperation Movement in 1921; arrested at age 15.
- Adopted name “Azad” in court, becoming Chandra Shekhar Azad.
Contribution to Freedom Movement:
- Joined Hindustan Republican Association (HRA) after non-cooperation movement’s suspension.
- Participated in Kakori Conspiracy (1925) for fund collection.
- HRA transformed into Hindustan Socialist Republican Army (HSRA) in 1928.
Death:
- Died at Azad Park in Allahabad on 27th February 1931.
7. Shivaram Rajguru(1908-1931)
Early Life
- Born: August 24, 1908, in Khed (renamed Rajgurunagar)
- Family: Marathi, anti-British, and nationalist
- Education: Well-versed in Indian scriptures
Revolutionary Activities (HSRA)
- Joined: Late teens (founded in 1928 by Bhagat Singh & Chandrasekhar Azad)
- Belief: Militant nationalism, opposed to Gandhi’s non-violence
- Nickname: “Gunman” (Raghunath within HSRA)
Assassination of John Saunders (1928)
- Motive: Revenge for Lala Lajpat Rai’s death (police brutality during Simon Commission protests)
- Target: James A. Scott (ordered the lathi charge) – Mistaken identity led to killing Saunders (with Bhagat Singh)
Martyrdom
- Arrested: After the assassination, while traveling to Pune
- Trial: Sentenced to death along with Bhagat Singh and Sukhdev Thapar
- Execution: Hanged on March 23, 1931, in Lahore (at age 22)
- Jatindra Nath Das
Birth:
- Born on 27th October 1904 in Calcutta.
Revolutionary Activities:
- Joined Anushilan Samiti and participated in the Non-Cooperation Movement led by Gandhi in 1921.
- Arrested for anti-government activities while studying at Vidyasagar College.
- Initiated a hunger strike at Mymensingh Central Jail protesting poor treatment of political prisoners.
Role in Lahore Conspiracy Case:
- Arrested in connection with the murder of police officer J.P. Saunders.
- Led hunger strike in Lahore Jail demanding better treatment for political prisoners.
Death and Aftermath:
- Continued hunger strike for 63 days until his death on 13th September 1929.
- His death sparked widespread protests across India.
- Notable figures like Jawaharlal Nehru and Subhas Chandra Bose praised his sacrifice and martyrdom.
9. Jatindra Mohan Sengupta (1885-1933)
Early Life and Education
- Born: February 22, 1885, Barama, Chittagong (present-day Bangladesh)
- Studied at Presidency College, Calcutta
- Law degree from Downing College, Cambridge University
Freedom Movement
- Joined Indian National Congress
- Participated in Non-Cooperation Movement (1921) under Gandhi
- Elected to Bengal Legislative Council (1923)
- President of Bengal Provincial Congress Committee & Mayor of Calcutta (1929-1930)
- Arrested for opposing Burma’s separation from India (1930)
- Died in prison at Ranchi on July 23, 1933 (aged 48)
Legacy
- Honored with title ‘Deshapriya’ (Beloved of the Country)
10. Bhagwati Charan Vohra (1903-1930)
Early Life (1903-1921)
- Born: November 15, 1903
- Education:C. College (Intermediate Science) & National College, Lahore (BA)
Revolutionary Activities
- Joined Non-Cooperation Movement (1921)
- Co-founded Naujawan Bharat Sabha (1926) & became Propaganda Secretary
- Helped draft manifesto of HSRA (1928)
- Planned bomb attack on Viceroy Irwin’s train (1929)
- Authored “The Philosophy of Bomb” in response to Gandhi’s criticism
Death
- Died: May 28, 1930 (accidentally while making bombs)
11. Kalpana Datta(1913-1995)
Activism
- Joined Surya Sen’s armed movement (1930s)
- Participated in Chittagong armoury raid (1930)
Later Life
- Joined Communist Party of India
- Married Puran Chand Joshi (General Secretary, CPI – 1943)