Chapter-4 : India on the Brink of Colonial Rule
Arora IAS Modern History Notes
Decline of the Mughals (Early 18th Century)
Mughal Decline under Aurangzeb (1658-1707)
- Policies weakened state stability.
- Wars of succession and weak rulers after his death accelerated decline.
Muhammad Shah’s Reign (1719-1748)
- Incompetent ruler, failed to revive the empire.
- Witnessed rise of independent states (Hyderabad, Bengal, Awadh, Punjab).
- Marathas emerged as contenders for power.
External Challenges
- Neglect of North-Western Borders:Mughals vulnerable to invasions.
- Nadir Shah’s Invasion (1738-39):
- Conquered Lahore and defeated Mughals at Karnal.
- Looted Delhi, seized treasures.
- Gained Mughal territory west of Indus (including Kabul).
- Ahmad Shah Abdali’s Invasions (1748-1767):
- Repeatedly attacked Mughals, harassed them.
- Forced Mughal concessions (Punjab in 1751-52).
- Briefly captured Delhi in 1757, installed Afghan caretaker.
- Faced conflicts with Marathas over control.
- Defeated Marathas at Third Battle of Panipat (1761).
Result: Mughal Empire weakened, vulnerable to further invasions from the northwest.
Weak Mughal Rulers After Aurangzeb
Bahadur Shah I (1707-1712):
- Son of Aurangzeb.
- Pacifist policy towards Marathas, Rajputs, Jats.
- Suppressed Sikh rebellion under Banda Bahadur.
Jahandar Shah (1712-1713):
- Appointed Zulfikar Khan as Prime Minister for financial reforms.
- Abolished Jizya tax.
Farrukhsiyar (1713-1719):
- Rose to power with Sayyid brothers’ help.
- Religious tolerance (abolished Jizya and pilgrimage tax).
- Granted trading rights to the British (1717).
- Murdered by Sayyid brothers.
Rafi-ud-Darajat & Rafi-ud-Daula (1719):
- Brief reigns controlled by the Sayyid brothers.
Muhammad Shah (1719-1748):
- Luxurious lifestyle earned him the nickname “Rangeela”.
- Killed Sayyid brothers with Nizam-ul-Mulk’s help.
- Nizam-ul-Mulk founded Hyderabad (1724).
- Faced Maratha invasions (1737).
- Defeated by Nadir Shah (1739) who looted Delhi.
Ahmad Shah (1748-1754):
- Incompetent ruler, left power to his mother (Udham Bai).
Alamgir II (1754-1758):
- Faced Ahmad Shah Abdali’s invasion (1757).
- Battle of Plassey happened during his reign (1757).
Later Mughal Rulers (1758-1857):
- Witnessed decline of Mughal power.
- Battles of Panipat (1761) and Buxar (1764).
- Became dependent on British East India Company after 1765.
- Bahadur Shah Zafar (last Mughal emperor) captured by British after 1857 revolt.
Why Panipat Was a Favorite Battlefield
Strategic Location:
- Located between fertile plains of Ganga and Indus rivers.
- Easy access from Khyber Pass for invaders aiming for Delhi.
- Less risky terrain compared to deserts or dense forests.
- Preferred by Delhi rulers for confrontation.
Logistical Advantages:
- Proximity to Delhi simplified troop and supply movement.
- Capital remained insulated from immediate conflict zone.
Favorable Battlefield Conditions:
- Flat terrain suited cavalry warfare, dominant at the time.
- Grand Trunk Road (built by Sher Shah Suri) facilitated travel.
- Short monsoon season allowed for uninterrupted battles.
- Local artisans readily provided weaponry and supplies.
Causes of Decline of Mughal Empire
Two Main Views on Decline:
- Empire-related view:Internal factors within Mughal structure caused decline.
- Region-related view:Instability in different regions contributed to decline.
Mughal Decline Gained Momentum After Aurangzeb (1707):
- Even though the empire faced challenges, a strong ruler could have prevented collapse.
- Incompetent successors weakened the empire.
Major Factors Contributing to Decline:
- Shifting Allegiance of Zamindars:
- Zamindars (hereditary land owners) gained power under Aurangzeb.
- Regional loyalties grew, weakening central authority.
- Zamindars aided nobility in carving out independent kingdoms.
- Jagirdari Crisis:
- Mughal nobles held jagirs (land grants) and mansabs (military ranks).
- Divisions among nobles based on religion, region, and tribe.
- Rivalry and competition for power weakened the empire.
- Rise of Regional Aspirations:
- Jats, Sikhs, and Marathas challenged Mughal authority under Aurangzeb.
- Continuous struggle for regional power weakened the empire.
- Rajput policies:
- Aurangzeb and Bahadur Shah I’s suppression led to conflict.
- Later Mughals’ reconciliation attempts failed due to broken trust.
- Marathas’ growing power and ambitions threatened Mughal control.
- Economic and Administrative Problems:
- Too many nobles and not enough land for jagirs.
- Aurangzeb’s solution (increased jagir income on paper) hurt peasants.
- Wars, lavish lifestyles, and shrinking state land led to financial strain.
- Stagnant economy with no technological advancements.
- European traders impacted Mughal trade, reducing revenue.
- Weak rulers after Aurangzeb failed to manage a vast, complex empire.
Rise of Regional States After Mughal Decline
Three Categories of Emerging States:
- Successor States:Mughal provinces that became independent.
- Examples: Awadh, Bengal, Hyderabad.
- Maintained nominal allegiance to Mughal emperor.
- Independent Kingdoms:Established due to weakened Mughal control.
- Examples: Mysore, Kerala, Rajput states.
- Did not acknowledge Mughal authority.
- New States:Formed by rebelling against Mughals.
- Examples: Marathas, Sikhs, Jats.
Survey of Regional Kingdoms:
- Hyderabad (Nizam-ul-Mulk):Founded by Asaf-Jah dynasty (Nizam).
- Awadh (Saadat Khan):Founded by a Shia noble, later ruled by Nawabs.
- Bengal (Murshid Kuli Khan):Became prosperous under his rule.
The Rajputs:
- Attempted to regain independence in the 18th century.
- Briefly challenged Mughals but ultimately failed.
Mysore (Wodeyars):
- Ruled by Wodeyar dynasty.
- Haider Ali and Tipu Sultan rose to prominence through constant warfare.
Kerala (Martanda Varma):
- Established Travancore as the capital.
- Expanded territory and modernized the army.
The Jats (Churaman & Badan Singh):
- Formed the Jat state of Bharatpur (Suraj Mal).
- Powerful under Suraj Mal’s rule, declined after his death.
The Sikhs (Guru Gobind Singh):
- Transformed into a militant sect.
- Organized into misls (confederacies) under Ranjit Singh.
- Ranjit Singh established a strong Sikh kingdom in Punjab.
The Marathas:
- Most formidable regional power.
- Expanded under Peshwa leadership, challenged Mughal authority.
- Faced setback at Panipat (1761) but recovered quickly.
- Main rivals of the British East India Company.
Rohilakhand & Farrukhabad:
- Founded by Afghan immigrants (Ali Muhammad Khan & Mohammad Khan Bangash).
- Faced conflicts with other regional powers and the British.
Regional States After Mughals
Nature:
- Maintained symbolic ties to Mughal emperor.
- Power based on collaboration with local groups (zamindars, merchants, nobles).
- Exception: Mysore (rulers ignored local chieftains).
Limitations:
- Weak financial, administrative, and military systems.
- Lagged in science and technology.
- Constant warfare between regional powers.
- Strong enough to challenge Mughals, but not to create a stable all-India empire.
- Jagirdari crisis worsened due to declining income and increasing contenders.
- Economy stagnant despite flourishing trade.
Socio-Economic Conditions in 18th Century India
Poverty and Opulence:
- Extreme poverty existed alongside immense wealth.
- Common people struggled to survive, while elites lived luxuriously.
- However, life for the masses was arguably better than under British rule.
Agriculture:
- Mainstay of the economy, but technically backward.
- Peasants labored hard but received meager rewards.
- Excessive taxes burdened farmers (state, zamindars, jagirdars, revenue-farmers).
- Situation worsened under British rule.
Trade and Industry:
- India largely self-sufficient in handicrafts and agricultural products.
- Exports exceeded imports, creating a trade surplus.
- India attracted precious metals (silver and gold).
Imports:
- Pearls, raw silk, wool, dates, dried fruits, rose water (Persian Gulf)
- Coffee, gold, drugs, honey (Arabia)
- Tea, sugar, porcelain, silk (China)
- Gold, musk, woolen cloth (Tibet)
- Ivory, drugs (Africa)
- Woollen cloth, copper, iron, lead, paper (Europe)
Exports:
- Cotton textiles, raw silk and silk fabrics
- Hardware, indigo, saltpetre, opium
- Rice, wheat, sugar, pepper, spices
- Precious stones, drugs
Manufacturing Centers:
- Murshidabad, Patna, Surat, Ahmedabad, Broach
- Chanderi, Burhanpur, Jaunpur, Varanasi
- Lucknow, Agra, Multan, Lahore
- Masulipatnam, Aurangabad, Chicacole
- Vishakhapatnam, Bangalore, Coimbatore, Madurai
Shipbuilding:
- Flourished in Maharashtra, Andhra, and Bengal.
- Kerala coast (Calicut, Quilon) also had a shipbuilding industry.
- Zamorin of Calicut used Kunjali Maraikkars’ naval expertise.
- Shivaji Bhonsle built a strong navy to counter the Portuguese.
- Many Indian-made ships were used by European companies (Bipan Chandra).
Education:
- Traditional system focused on literature, law, religion, philosophy, logic.
- Ignored physical sciences, technology, geography.
- Over-reliance on ancient learning discouraged new ideas.
- Widespread elementary education (pathshalas, maktabs) for reading, writing, arithmetic.
- Limited female education.
- Chatuspathis/Tols offered higher education (Sanskrit, Persian, Arabic).
- Varanasi, Tirhut, Nadia, Utkala – famous Sanskrit learning centers.
- Azimabad (Patna) – renowned center for Persian education.
Social Structure:
- Traditional, divided by caste, religion, region, tribe, language.
- Patriarchal family system with caste as the central feature for Hindus.
- Numerous sub-castes determined social status and professions (exceptions existed).
- Caste councils (panchayats) enforced social norms.
- Muslims also had divisions based on caste, race, tribe, and status.
- Sunni-Shia differences, social hierarchies among Muslim nobles/officials.
- Religious conversions occurred, caste remained a divisive force.
Position of Women:
- Patriarchal system limited women’s individuality (exceptions existed).
- Upper-class women confined to homes, lower-class women often worked outside.
- Harmful practices like purdah, sati, child marriage, polygamy prevailed.
- Plight of widows was especially difficult, dowry system widespread.
- Attempts to promote widow remarriage (Raja Jai Singh, Prashuram Bhau) failed.
Development in Art, Architecture and Culture (18th Century)
Impact of Mughal Decline:
- Artists sought patronage from new regional courts (Hyderabad, Lucknow, etc.).
Architectural Achievements:
- Lucknow – Bada Imambara (Asaf-ud-Daula, 1784).
- Jaipur – Pink City (Sawai Jai Singh, 1st half of 18th century).
- Five astronomical observatories built by Sawai Jai Singh.
- Padmanabhapuram Palace (Kerala) – known for architecture and murals.
New Art Movements:
- Rise of Rajput and Kangra schools of painting (fresh styles).
Literary Developments:
- Growth of Urdu language and poetry (Mir, Sauda, Nazir).
- Malayalam literature flourished under Travancore rulers (Kanchan Nambiar).
- Tamil “sittar poetry” (Tayumanavar).
- Punjabi – Heer Ranjha epic by Warris Shah.
- Sindhi literature – Shah Abdul Latif’s “Risalo” (poem collection).