Chapter-7 : The Revolt of 1857
Modern History : Arora IAS Class Notes
Background (1757-1857)
- Simmering Discontent:
- British expansion and economic exploitation.
- Peasant uprisings, religious rebellions.
- Discontent among various social classes.
Causes of the Revolt
- Economic Causes:
- Heavy taxation on peasants.
- Ruined traditional industries (handicrafts, textiles).
- Loss of income for zamindars.
- Growing poverty.
- Political Causes:
- Annexation of Indian states.
- Doctrine of Lapse.
- Loss of political power and prestige for Indian rulers.
- Administrative Causes:
- Rampant corruption in British administration.
- Lack of Indian representation.
- Socio-Religious Causes:
- Racial discrimination by British.
- Christian missionary activities seen as a threat.
- Social reforms (sati, widow remarriage) seen as interference.
- Military Causes:
- Sepoy grievances:
- Religious restrictions.
- General Service Enlistment Act (1856).
- Lower pay compared to British soldiers.
- Annexation of Awadh (home of many sepoys).
- Sepoys felt subordinate and discriminated against.
- Sepoy grievances:
Triggering Event
- The greased cartridge incident (1857): Rumors that new rifle cartridges were greased with cow and pig fat, offensive to Hindus and Muslims.
Outcome
- The revolt was largely unsuccessful and brutally suppressed by the British.
- Marked a turning point in British rule in India:
- End of East India Company rule.
- New British government in India more cautious and focused on maintaining control.
Additional Notes
- The revolt had both local and national dimensions.
- Sepoys played a key role, but the revolt involved other social classes as well.
- The revolt’s failure highlighted the need for greater unity among Indians.
The Beginning and Spread of the Revolt of 1857
The Spark
- Sepoys were already discontent with British rule.
- Rumors about greased cartridges (offensive to Hindus and Muslims) further inflamed tensions.
- The Army administration did not address sepoy concerns.
Start at Meerut (May 10, 1857)
- Sepoys in Meerut rebelled, refusing orders and freeing imprisoned comrades.
- This sparked a wider mutiny among Indian soldiers stationed there.
Delhi Becomes the Center
- Rebels from Meerut marched to Delhi and joined local forces.
- The aged Mughal emperor, Bahadur Shah Zafar, was proclaimed leader (symbolic).
- This signaled the revolt’s transformation from a mutiny to a broader rebellion.
Spreading Rebellion (May-June 1857)
- The entire Bengal Army soon rose in revolt.
- Awadh, Rohilkhand, Doab, Bundelkhand, Central India, Bihar, and East Punjab joined the rebellion.
- Civilians, including peasants, artisans, shopkeepers, and zamindars, also participated.
Leaders Emerge in Different Regions
- Delhi: Bahadur Shah Zafar (nominal leader), General Bakht Khan (real commander)
- Kanpur: Nana Saheb (adopted son of the last Peshwa)
- Lucknow: Begum Hazrat Mahal (widow of the deposed Nawab)
- Bareilly: Khan Bahadur (descendant of Rohilkhand rulers)
- Bihar: Kunwar Singh (zamindar of Jagdishpur)
- Faizabad: Maulvi Ahmadullah Shah
- Jhansi: Rani Lakshmibai (refused to accept British annexation of her state)
Struggles and Sacrifices
- The revolt lasted over a year, with heavy losses on both sides.
- Common people like Shah Mal, a village leader, played a crucial role in organizing resistance.
- The revolt ultimately failed due to a lack of unified leadership and superior British military power.
Suppression of the Revolt (1857-1859)
- British Regain Control
- Delhi captured in September 1857 after a long siege.
- Bahadur Shah Zafar exiled to Rangoon, Mughal dynasty extinguished.
- Kanpur recaptured in December 1857.
- Lucknow recaptured in March 1858.
- Jhansi recaptured in June 1858.
- Other rebellions crushed by 1859.
- British victory due to superior military power and resources.
Why the Revolt Failed
- Limited Participation
- Revolt mainly concentrated in northern and central India.
- Eastern, southern, and western regions largely unaffected.
- Reasons for Limited Participation
- Brutal suppression of earlier uprisings in those areas.
- Big zamindars, moneylenders, and some educated Indians sided with the British.
- Many Indian rulers remained neutral or actively helped the British.
- Inferior Military Strength
- Sepoys poorly equipped with outdated weapons.
- British forces had modern weaponry and communication technology.
- Lack of Coordination and Leadership
- No central leadership or unified strategy among rebels.
- Rebel leaders not as skilled as British commanders.
- No Clear Ideology
- Rebels lacked a common vision for an independent India.
- Diverse grievances and goals among different rebel groups.
Additional Notes
- The British forced India to repay the costs of suppressing the revolt.
- The revolt marked the end of the East India Company’s rule in India.
Hindu-Muslim Unity During the Revolt of 1857
- Evidence of Unity
- Bahadur Shah Zafar, a Muslim emperor, acknowledged as leader by rebels (both Hindu and Muslim).
- Hindus respected Muslim customs (e.g., banning cow slaughter in liberated areas).
- Examples of cooperation:
- Nana Saheb (Hindu) with Azimullah (Muslim advisor)
- Rani Lakshmibai (Hindu) with Afghan soldiers (Muslim)
- Significance
- Demonstrates pre-colonial India wasn’t inherently divided along religious lines.
Nature of the Revolt: Different Perspectives
- British View (Sir John Seeley):“Sepoy Mutiny” – selfish act by soldiers, no popular support.
- K. Datta:Primarily a military uprising, some civilian participation. Localized and poorly organized.
- D. Savarkar (Early 20th Century):First War of Indian Independence, nationalistic uprising.
- S.N. Sen:Began as religious fight, evolved into war of independence.
- R.C. Majumdar:Not national or all-India in character, many regions unaffected.
- Marxist View:Struggle against foreign and feudal rule, despite leaders’ feudal background.
- Jawaharlal Nehru:Essentially feudal uprising with some nationalistic elements.
- N. Roy:Last stand of feudalism against capitalism.
- P. Dutt:Peasant resistance against foreign domination and feudal order.
Challenges in Categorization
- Revolt wasn’t purely religious fanaticism or a clash of civilizations.
- Concept of a unified Indian nation wasn’t fully formed.
- Southern India largely uninvolved.
- Leaders had personal motives.
National Character of the Revolt
- Seen as a national struggle due to participation of diverse groups.
- Can be considered the first major attempt by Indians to oppose British rule.
Open Questions
- Were earlier uprisings as significant?
Overall Significance
- The Revolt of 1857, despite its limitations, marked a turning point: a combined effort by various groups to challenge British rule, paving the way for the later Indian independence movement.
Consequences of the Revolt of 1857
Political Changes
- End of British East India Company rule (August 1858)
- Direct rule by British Crown
- Queen Victoria named sovereign of India
- Secretary of State for India created
Queen’s Proclamation (1858)
- Promises made to Indians:
- No more annexations of princely states
- Respect for dignity and rights of native princes
- Equal opportunities in government services
- Freedom of religion
- Respect for Indian customs and practices
Impact on the Army
- Reorganization of British military
- Reduced number of Indian soldiers
- Increased number of European soldiers
- “Martial races” recruited from Punjab, Nepal, etc.
- Segregation of Indian and European troops
- All higher military positions reserved for Europeans
Social and Economic Changes
- Decline in reformist policies
- More conservative British rule
- Increased exploitation of Indian economy
- Racial tensions between Indians and British
Long-Term Impact
- Growth of Indian nationalism due to frustration with British policies
- “Divide and rule” policy solidified
Note: The Revolt of 1857, despite being crushed by the British, marked a turning point in Indian history. It led to significant changes in British administration and fueled the rise of Indian nationalism.
Significance of the Revolt of 1857
- End of East India Company Rule:The revolt directly led to the abolishment of the British East India Company’s rule in India. The British Crown assumed direct control in 1858.
- Rise of Indian Nationalism:Though unsuccessful, the revolt ignited a sense of national unity and a desire for self-rule among Indians. It became a symbol of resistance against British rule.
- Reorganization of British Army:The British military was reorganized to prevent future uprisings. They reduced Indian soldier numbers, increased Europeans, and recruited from “martial races” considered more loyal.
- Queen’s Proclamation (1858):The British Crown issued a proclamation promising reforms like religious freedom, respect for Indian customs, and ending territorial expansion. However, many promises remained unfulfilled.
- Shift in British Policy:The optimistic reformist approach of the British waned. A more conservative and exploitative approach towards India’s resources and people emerged.
- Seeds of “Divide and Rule”: The British exploited existing social and religious differences to weaken Indian unity and maintain control. This policy of “divide and rule” intensified after the revolt.
- Exposure of Sepoy Discontent:The revolt highlighted the grievances of sepoys, including religious concerns, discriminatory practices, and resentment towards British superiority.
- Showcased Indian Leadership:The revolt saw the emergence of Indian leaders like Rani Lakshmibai, Nana Saheb, and Tantia Tope, who became symbols of resistance against British rule.
- Military Strategies Reevaluated:The revolt exposed vulnerabilities in British military tactics and communication, leading them to reassess their strategies in India.
- Spark for Future Movements:The revolt’s legacy inspired future generations of Indian revolutionaries and freedom fighters in their struggle for independence.
Revolt of 1857: Historical Perspectives
Nationalist Perspective:
-
- Views revolt as “First War of Independence.” (R.C. Majumdar, V.D. Savarkar)
- Emphasizes pan-Indian unity against British rule.
- Sees revolt as a heroic fight for independence.
Marxist Perspective:
- Views revolt as a class struggle. (R.S. Sharma, Irfan Habib)
- Focuses on economic exploitation and social injustices.
- Sees revolt as a precursor to anti-colonial struggle.
Revisionist Perspective:
- Challenges nationalist narrative. (Eric Stokes, Christopher Bayly)
- Views revolt as fragmented, localized uprisings.
- Highlights economic distress, social factors, and cultural anxieties.
Imperialist Perspective:
- Views revolt as a sepoy mutiny. (Thomas Metcalf, C.A. Bayly)
- Emphasizes religious, cultural, and political triggers for sepoy discontent.
- Downplays Indian agency and grievances.
Regional Perspectives:
- Focus on specific regions (Awadh, Bihar, Bengal, Delhi).
- Analyze local socio-economic and political dynamics.
- Offer unique interpretations of events and outcomes.