Modern History Notes : Chapter- 11 : Origins of the Indian National Congress : Arora IAS Class Notes 

Chapter- 11 : Indian National Congress: Foundation and the Moderate Phase

Arora IAS Class Notes 

Foundation of the Indian National Congress:

• Established in December 1885 at Gokuldas Tejpal Sanskrit College in Bombay.
• Proposed by A.O. Hume, a retired English civil servant.
• Initial groundwork laid through Indian National Conference sessions in 1883 and 1885, led by Surendranath Banerjea and Ananda Mohan Bose.
• First session attended by 72 delegates, presided over by Womesh Chandra Bonnerjee.
• Annual sessions held in December, rotating across different parts of India.

Prominent Leaders:

• Presidents during the early phase included Dadabhai Naoroji, Badruddin Tyabji, Pherozeshah Mehta, Surendranath Banerjea, and others.
• Notable figures like Mahadev Govind Ranade, Bal Gangadhar Tilak, and Gopal Krishna Gokhale actively participated.
• Kadambini Ganguly, the first woman graduate of Calcutta University, addressed the Congress session in 1890, highlighting the commitment to women’s participation.

Safety Valve Theory:

• Theory suggesting A.O. Hume founded Congress as a “safety valve” to mitigate Indian discontent.
• Extremist leaders like Lala Lajpat Rai supported this theory.
• Marxist historians proposed a “conspiracy theory,” implying Congress was formed to suppress potential uprisings.
• Modern historians dispute the “safety valve” notion, viewing Congress as an expression of Indian political consciousness.
• Bipan Chandra suggests Hume acted as a catalyst to unite nationalist forces.

Aims and Objectives:

• Found a democratic nationalist movement.
• Politicize and educate people politically.
• Establish headquarters for the nationalist movement.
• Foster friendly relations among nationalist workers across India.
• Develop and propagate an anti-colonial nationalist ideology.
• Present popular demands to the government, unifying people over common economic and political programs.
• Foster national unity regardless of religion, caste, or province.
• Promote and nurture Indian nationhood carefully.

 

Era of Moderates (1885-1905)

Leaders:

• Dadabhai Naoroji
• Pherozeshah Mehta
• E. Wacha
• C. Bonnerjea
• N. Banerjea

Approach:

• Constitutional Agitation (1885-1905):Moderates believed in peaceful protests within legal boundaries.
• Creating Public Awareness (1885-1905):They aimed to educate and unite Indians on political issues.
• Persuading British Government (1885-1905):They used petitions, meetings, and public pressure to influence British reforms.
• “Prayer and Petition” (1885-1905):Moderates preferred polite requests for change.
• British Committee of INC (1889):Established in London to advocate for India’s interests.
• Dadabhai Naoroji’s Advocacy (1889-):Campaigned extensively for India’s cause abroad.
• London Congress (1892 – Cancelled):Planned but ultimately postponed due to British elections.

Overall Strategy:

• Moderates believed in gradual change through building relationships with Britain.
• Their goal was to transform British rule into a more representative system.

 

Contributions of Moderate Nationalists

Economic Critique of British Imperialism (1885-1905)

• Drain Theory:Led by Dadabhai Naoroji, Moderates exposed British exploitation through this theory.
• Economic Transformation Critique:They opposed the shift from a self-sufficient Indian economy to a supplier of raw materials for Britain.
• Demands:
  • End economic subservience to Britain.
  • Develop an independent Indian economy.
  • Reduce land revenue and salt tax.
  • Improve working conditions for plantation laborers.
  • Reduce military expenditure.
  • Encourage modern industry through tariffs and government aid.

Constitutional Reforms and Propaganda in Legislature (1861-1906)

• Limited Power of Councils:Pre-1920 legislative councils had little real power.
• Nationalist Demands (1885-1892):
  • Expansion of councils for greater Indian participation.
  • Increased power for councils, especially financial control.
• Criticism of Indian Councils Act (1892):Moderates felt the reforms were inadequate.
• Later Demands:
  • Majority of elected Indians in councils.
  • Power to vote on and amend the budget (“No taxation without representation”).
  • Self-government like Canada and Australia (by 1906).
• Nationalist Achievements:
  • Used councils to expose government flaws and raise public issues.
  • Enhanced their political stature and built a national movement.
  • Generated anti-imperialist sentiment.
• Shortcomings:
  • Failed to widen the movement’s base by including masses and women.
  • Didn’t demand universal voting rights.

Campaign for General Administrative Reforms (1885-1905)

• Indianisation of Government Service:
  • Economic argument: Employing Indians would be cheaper.
  • Political argument: Salaries of British officials drained Indian resources.
  • Moral argument: Indians deserved positions of trust and responsibility.
• Other Demands:
  • Separation of judiciary from executive functions.
  • Less oppressive bureaucracy and a more efficient judicial system.
  • Less aggressive foreign policy to reduce military spending.
  • Increased spending on welfare, education, irrigation, and agriculture.
  • Better treatment for Indian laborers abroad.

Protection of Civil Rights (1885-1905)

• Focus on Free Speech, Press, and Assembly:Moderates spread democratic ideas.
• Defense of Civil Rights:This became a key part of the freedom struggle.
• Public Outrage:Examples include arrests of Tilak, journalists, and the Natu brothers.

Indian Councils Act, 1892

Main Provisions:

• Increased council members:
  • Imperial Legislative Council: 10-16 non-official members (up from 6-10).
  • Provincial Legislative Councils: Increased numbers not specified.
• Nominations:
  • Non-official members nominated by various bodies:
    • Bengal Chamber of Commerce
    • Provincial legislative councils
    • Universities
    • Municipalities
    • Zamindars (landowners)
  • Introduced the principle of representation.
• Allowed discussions on budget and asking questions.

Limitations:

• Official majority remained, limiting non-official influence.
• Imperial Council met only 13 days/year on average (1892-1909).
• Few Indian members participated (5 out of 24 in Imperial Council).
• No voting or amendments on budget.
• No discussions on supplementary requests or answers to questions.

 

Evaluation of Early Nationalists (Moderates)

Achievements:

• Awakened national sentiment.
• Created a pan-Indian identity with common interests.
• Trained political workers and spread modern ideas.
• Exposed the exploitative nature of British rule.
• Established the idea of India being ruled for Indians’ benefit.
• Built a foundation for future mass movements.

Limitations:

• Narrow social base with limited mass participation.
• Distrusted the masses due to perceived social divisions and lack of education.
• Failed to broaden democratic demands.

Role of Masses:

• Moderates viewed the masses as passive due to social divisions and conservatism.
• Believed national unity had to precede political participation (a flaw).
• Lack of mass support limited them to moderate tactics.

Government Attitude:

• Hostile towards the Congress despite their loyalty.
• Condemned nationalists as “seditious” and “disloyal.”
• Employed “divide and rule” tactics:
  • Supported rival organizations (e.g., Sir Syed Ahmed Khan’s United Indian Patriotic Association).
  • Tried to divide nationalists by religion and pit moderates against extremists.
• Ultimately failed to halt the rise of nationalism.

 

 

Important Leader

1. A.O. Hume: Civil Servant

• Arrival and Career in India:
  • Joined Bengal Civil Service in 1849 (Etawah district).
  • Witnessed 1857 Rebellion and focused on improving lives (Etawah became a model of progress).
  • Rose through the ranks but criticized British policies (like his father, a radical MP).
  • Became secretary of Revenue, Agriculture, and Commerce (1871).
  • Dismissed from Secretariat in 1879 for criticizing Lord Lytton.
• Beyond Civil Service:
  • Founded journal “Stray Feathers” for birdwatching records across India.
  • Left India in 1894 (London).
  • Supported Indian National Congress.
  • Developed interest in botany and established South London Botanical Institute.

 

2. Mahadev Govind Ranade

• Born: Jan 18, 1842, Niphad, Nashik (Maharashtra)
• Education:
  • Elphinstone College, Bombay (Mumbai)
  • University of Bombay (BA 1862, LLB 1866)

Career:

• Presidency Magistrate, Bombay Small Causes Court (1871)
• Judge, Bombay High Court (1893)
• History instructor, Elphinstone College

Contributions to Indian National Congress (INC):

• Founding member (1885)
• Advocated for political empowerment and unity

Ideology

• Influenced by Western culture and colonial state
• Key aspects:
  • Criticized some Indian customs and traditions
  • Emphasized spiritualism within Hinduism
  • Supported Swadeshi movement (use of indigenous products)

Social Reforms

• Founding member of Prarthana Samaj (religious reform movement)
• Edited Induprakash (newspaper promoting social and religious reform)
• Advocated for women’s education (wife Ramabai became a doctor)
• Co-founded Widow Marriage Association (1861)
• Founded Poona Sarvajanik Sabha (sociopolitical organization)
• Championed social reforms against:
  • Child marriage
  • Widow remarriage restrictions
  • High wedding costs
  • Caste restrictions on travel

Other Contributions

• Established schools
• Authored books on Indian economics and Maratha history
• “Father of Indian Economics”: advocated for industrialization and welfare programs
• Influenced future leaders like Gopal Krishna Gokhale

Conclusion

• Significant figure in social reform movement and Indian nationalism
• Legacy includes:
  • Societal change advocacy
  • Economic development initiatives
  • Inspiration for future reformers

 

3. Dadabhai Naoroji

• Born: September 4, 1825, Bombay (Mumbai)
• Education:
  • Elphinstone College (scholarship recipient)
  • First Indian professor at Elphinstone College

Career Highlights:

• Co-founded Cama & Co. (First Indian company in London)
• Professor of Gujarati at University College London
• Dewan of Baroda (1874)

Contributions & Achievements

• Founded East India Association in London (1867) to advocate for Indian rights.
• Three-time president of the Indian National Congress (1886, 1893, 1906).
• First Indian MP in British House of Commons (1902).
• Pioneered concept of calculating India’s national income.
• Championed social reforms:
  • Women’s education
  • Equality
  • Anti-caste system

Legacy

• Known as “The Grand Old Man of India”
• Voiced Indian grievances on international platforms
• Remembered for his contributions to Indian nationalism and social reform

 

4. Badruddin Tyabji

• Born: October 10, 1844, Bombay (Mumbai)
• Family:
  • Son of Mullah Tyab Ali Bhai Mian (Sulaimani Bohra community)
  • Youngest of seven sons
  • Brother Camruddin was the first Indian solicitor in England

Education:

• Newbury High Park College, London (1860)
• University of London
• Middle Temple

Career Highlights

• First Indian Barrister in Bombay High Court (1867)
• Bombay Municipal Corporation member (1873)
• University of Bombay senate member (1875-1905)
• Bombay Legislative Council member (1882-1886)
• Co-founded Bombay Presidency Association (1885)
• Bombay High Court Judge (1895) – First Muslim judge
• Chief Justice of Bombay High Court (1902) – First Indian Chief Justice

Political Participation

• Founding member of Indian National Congress
• Third president of Indian National Congress (1887-1888)
• Co-founded Indian Parliamentary Committee (1893)

Socio-Political Contributions

• Advocated for social reforms:
  • Opposed purdah system (his daughters were first to be educated abroad)
  • Supported Age of Consent Bill (1891)
  • Fought against zenana system
• Promoted Muslim participation in public life:
  • Established Islam Club and Islam Gymkhana
• Known for his impartiality as a judge

Legacy

• Pioneered secular political consciousness among Muslims
• Remembered for his legal and social reforms

 

5. Sir Pherozeshah Mehta

Early Life and Education

• Born: 1845 (middle-class trader family)
• Education: Elphinstone College (1864 graduate)
• Nicknames: “Lion of Bombay”, “Uncrowned King of Bombay”

Legal Career

• Studied law at Lincoln’s Inn, London (called to Bar in 1868)
• Established a successful legal practice in Bombay
• Advocated for reform of Bombay Municipal Government
• Drafted the Bombay Municipal Act of 1872 (“Father of Bombay Municipality”)

Political Career

• Influenced by Gladstonian liberalism
• Founding member of the Indian National Congress (moderate faction)
• Championed Indian interests in legislative councils
• Opposed restrictive British policies (Arms Act, Vernacular Press Act)
• Supported Ilbert Bill, local self-governance
• Criticized Lord Curzon’s control over universities

Nationalist Contributions

• Founded the Bombay Chronicle newspaper (1910)
• Highlighted plight of Indians in South Africa (inspired Gandhi)
• Publicly welcomed Gandhi to India (1915)

Legacy

• Numerous institutions named after him (halls, roads, law colleges)
• Remembered for resisting government interference in universities
• Founding member of Indian National Congress and Bombay Presidency Association

 

6. Surendranath Banerjee

• Born: November 10, 1848, Kolkata, India
• Education: University of Calcutta

Civil Service Aspirations and Dismissal

• Attempted Indian Civil Service exams in England (1868)
• Became first Hindu to pass interview stage
• Appointed Assistant Magistrate in Sylhet (1871)
• Dismissed by British in 1874 (alleged jurisdictional impropriety)

Shift to Academia and Nationalism

• Became professor of English at Metropolitan College
• Founded Ripon College (later Surendranath College) in Kolkata
• Used teaching to inspire nationalism in students

 

7. Bal Gangadhar Tilak

Born: July 23, 1856, Ratnagiri, Maharashtra

Educationist

• Founded Deccan Education Society (1884)
• Co-founded Fergusson College (1885)

Ideology

• Devout Hindu, used scriptures to inspire fight against oppression
• Emphasized self-rule (Swaraj) as key to progress
• Popularized:
  • Ganesh Chaturthi festival
  • Shiv Jayanti celebrations

Political Life

• Early advocate for complete independence (Swaraj)
• Part of Lal-Bal-Pal extremist trio
• Joined Indian National Congress (INC) in 1890

Surat Split (1907)

• Extremists (Tilak, Lal Lajpat Rai) vs. Moderates (Gopal Krishna Gokhale)
• Extremists walked out over INC president selection

Contributions to Freedom Movement

• Promoted Swadeshi movement (boycott of foreign goods)
• Founded All India Home Rule League (1916)
• Lucknow Pact (1916): Hindu-Muslim unity with Muslim League
• Jailed (1908-1914) for defending revolutionaries

Newspapers: Kesari (Marathi), Mahratta (English)

Death: August 1, 1920

 

8. Gopal Krishna Gokhale

Born: May 9, 1866, Kotluk village, Maharashtra

Ideology

• Advocated social reform, education, and peaceful struggle for freedom

Role in Colonial Legislatures

• Bombay Legislative Council (1899-1902)
• Imperial Legislative Council (1902-1915)
• Played a key role in Morley-Minto reforms (1909)

Role in INC

• Joined Moderate faction in 1889
• President of INC (1905)
• Despite differences, campaigned for Lal Lajpat Rai’s release (1907)

Other Works

• Founded Servants of India Society (1905) for education
• Associated with Sarvajanik Sabha journal
• Established Ranade Institute of Economics (1908)
• Started The Hitavada newspaper

Mentor to Gandhi

• Considered Gandhi’s political guru
• Gandhi dedicated a book titled “Dharmatma Gokhale” to him

 

9. Kadambini Ganguly

• Born: 1861
• Died: 1923

Early Education and Achievements

• Studied at Banga Mahila Vidyalaya and Bethune School
• Became the first woman to pass the University of Calcutta entrance exam (1878)
• Along with Chandramukhi Basu, became the first female graduates of Bethune College (1883) – also the first female graduates in India and the British Empire

Medical Career

• First woman admitted to Calcutta Medical College (1884)
• Trained in Scotland due to restrictions
• Established a successful medical practice in India

 

10. Lala Lajpat Rai

Born: January 28, 1865, Dhudike village, Punjab

Early Life and Influences

• Studied law at Government College, Lahore
• Joined Arya Samaj, influenced by Swami Dayananda Saraswati

Nationalist Leader

• Formed Lal-Bal-Pal trio with Bipin Chandra Pal and Bal Gangadhar Tilak
• Joined Indian National Congress, participated in agitations
• Opposed Bengal partition, founded Home Rule League of America (1917)
• Supported Non-Cooperation Movement, opposed Rowlatt Act and Jallianwala Bagh massacre
• Died in 1928 from injuries sustained during a protest against the Simon Commission

 

11. Womesh Chunder Bonnerjee

Early Life and Education (1844-1868)

• Born: December 29, 1844, Calcutta (Kolkata)
• Family: Brahmin family with a legal background
• Education: Oriental Seminary and Hindu School (Calcutta)
• Legal Training: Clerk at a law firm (1862), Middle Temple (London, 1864-1867)

Legal Career (1868-1906)

• Barrister in Calcutta (1868)
• First Indian Standing Counsel (1882, 1884, 1886, 1887)
• Practiced law in England (later years)

Indian National Congress (1885-1892)

• President of the INC (1885 Bombay session, 1892 Allahabad session)
• Advocated for better provincial coordination within the INC
• Criticized the British Salt Tax

Other Political Activities

• Helped establish the London Indian Society (later merged with East India Association)
• First Indian to contest a British Parliamentary seat (Barrow-in-Furness, 1892)

Later Life (1902-1906)

• Returned to England with family (1902)
• Died in Croydon, England (1906)

 

12. Surendranath Banerjea

• Born: November 10, 1848, Calcutta
• Education: Calcutta University (1868)

Teaching Career and Inspiration

• Professor of English (1875)
• Influenced students with nationalistic ideas

Indian Association (1876)

• Founded the Indian Association to unite Hindus and Muslims for political action
• Promoted the concept of India as a unified political entity

National Conference (1883-1885)

• Organized national conferences to discuss political issues
• Paved the way for the Indian National Congress

Indian National Congress (1885-1906)

• Played a key role in the INC’s formation
• Served as President twice (1895, 1902)
• Advocated for moderate reforms within the British Raj

Later Life (1906-1925)

• Supported Montagu-Chelmsford reforms (1919)
• Disagreed with Gandhi’s non-cooperation movement
• Left Congress and accepted a knighthood (1919)

Died: 1925

 

13. Dinshaw Wacha:

Industry and Politics:

• Associated with cotton industry, President of Indian Merchants’ Chamber (1915)
• Held positions in Bombay Legislative Council, Imperial Legislative Council, Council of State
• Led Western India Liberal Association (1919-1927)

Indian National Congress:

• Criticized lack of dedicated leadership
• Praised Allan Hume’s role but argued against his dominance
• Advocated for greater Indian involvement in Congress affairs

 

14. Syed Ahmed Khan

Born: Delhi (1817)

• Aristocratic family with ties to Mughal court
• Educated in Quran and science, awarded honorary law degree later
• Witnessed decline of Mughal Empire

Early Career

• Rejected job offer from Mughal court, joined East India Company (1838)
• Experienced loss of relatives in 1857 revolt
• Authored “Asbab-e-Baghawat-e-Hind” criticizing British policies in the revolt
• Knighted by British government (1869)

Ideology

• Advocated for reconciliation of Western science with Quranic teachings
• Believed in adaptability of religion and critical thinking
• Promoted English education and opposed blind adherence to tradition
• Advocated for interfaith understanding and authored “Commentary on the Holy Bible”

Contributions

Educational Reforms:

• Founded Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental College (MAOC, 1875), later Aligarh Muslim University
• Established Aligarh Scientific Society to promote science among Muslims
• Believed education was key to Muslim progress

Social Reforms:

• Supported democratic ideals, free speech, and social reform
• Advocated for women’s education and challenged practices like purdah and polygamy
• Promoted religious tolerance and unity

Literary Works:

• Authored “The Causes of the Indian Revolt” analyzing the 1857 rebellion
• Published “Tahzebul Akhlaq” magazine to address social and religious issues

Criticism

• Discouraged Muslims from joining the National Movement, prioritizing education over politics
• Views on separatism seen as contributing to the Two-Nation Theory

Legacy

• Died: Aligarh (1898)
• Considered a pivotal figure in Muslim education and social reform in 19th century India