Modern History Notes : Chapter-15 Gandhi’s Ascendancy and the Revival of Nationalism (Arora IAS Class Notes)

Chapter-15

Gandhi’s Ascendancy and the Revival of Nationalism

Arora IAS Class Notes

Post-War Conditions in India (1918-1919):

• Economic Hardships:
  • Increased taxes
  • Industrial recession
  • Unemployment (workers, artisans, educated)
  • High inflation and poverty (peasants)
• Disillusionment with British:
  • Many Indian soldiers died in the war.
  • War contributions (money, resources) not acknowledged.
  • Broken promises of political gains.

 

Factors Leading to Nationalist Resurgence:

• Expectations of Political Gains:Sacrifices during the war led to hopes of self-governance.
• Disillusionment with Imperialism:Allied powers’ hypocrisy regarding self-determination after the war.
• Global Nationalist Movements:Resurgence of nationalist movements in Asia and Africa inspired India.
• Impact of Russian Revolution (Nov 7, 1917):
  • Socialist overthrow of the Tsar inspired Indian nationalists.
  • Soviet message of self-determination resonated with Indians.

Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms and Government of India Act, 1919

Background:

• The British introduced the Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms (1918) after Montagu’s 1917 statement promising increased participation of Indians in government.
• The Government of India Act (1919) was enacted based on these reforms.

Main Features:

Provincial Government (Dyarchy):

• Executive:
  • Divided into two halves: “Reserved” (law & order, finance) and “Transferred” (education, health).
  • Governor led the administration.
  • Executive councilors oversaw reserved subjects (not responsible to legislature).
  • Ministers (elected from legislature) oversaw transferred subjects (responsible to legislature).
• Legislature:
  • Expanded with 70% elected members.
  • Communal and class electorates continued.
  • Limited voting rights for women.
  • Legislature could initiate legislation but required governor’s assent.
  • Limited control over budget.

Central Government (No Responsible Government):

• Governor-General remained chief executive.
• Viceroy’s Council had 3 Indians out of 8 members.
• Bicameral legislature introduced:
  • Central Legislative Assembly (lower house) with limited elected seats.
  • Council of State (upper house) with limited elected seats and no female members.
• Legislature had limited powers (questions, discussions, partial budget approval).

Drawbacks:

• Limited franchise (small electorate compared to population).
• No control over Viceroy and executive council at the center.
• Unbalanced division of subjects (key areas like finance reserved).
• Unworkable division in provinces (parallel administrations for reserved and transferred subjects).
• Friction between ministers and bureaucrats due to lack of control.

Congress Reaction:

• Disappointed and demanded effective self-government.
• Reforms called “unsatisfactory” and “unworthy.”

 

Making of Gandhi in South Africa

Early Career (1893-1914)

• Mohandas Gandhi arrived in South Africa in 1893.
• He witnessed discrimination against Asian laborers and merchants.
• He decided to stay and fight for their rights.

Indian Population in South Africa

• Three categories:
  • Indentured laborers (South India, post-1890)
  • Merchants (mostly Meman Muslims)
  • Ex-indentured laborers settled with families

Moderate Phase (1894-1906)

• Gandhi used petitions and memorials to authorities.
• He aimed to raise awareness of Indian grievances as British subjects.
• He founded the Natal Indian Congress and “Indian Opinion” newspaper.

Passive Resistance or Satyagraha (1906-1914)

• This phase marked the use of Satyagraha (devotion to truth) – non-violent civil disobedience.

Campaigns:

• 1906: Against Registration Certificates
  • Law required Indians to carry fingerprint certificates.
  • Gandhi led passive resistance against the discriminatory measure.
  • Many Indians, including Gandhi, were jailed.
  • The campaign ultimately led to a compromise.
• Restrictions on Indian Migration
  • Indians protested new legislation restricting their movement.
  • Defiance included crossing provincial borders without licenses.
  • Many were jailed, but the campaign highlighted the injustice.
• Poll Tax and Indian Marriages
  • A £3 poll tax burdened poor ex-indentured Indians.
  • A Supreme Court ruling invalidated non-Christian marriages.
  • Both issues sparked wider protests, including women.
• Transvaal Immigration Act
  • Indians protested illegal migration restrictions by entering Transvaal.
  • Miners and plantation workers went on strike in support.
  • Negotiations involving Gandhi, Lord Hardinge, C.F. Andrews, and General Smuts led to a compromise agreement.
  • The agreement addressed Indian demands regarding poll tax, registration, marriages, and immigration.

Tolstoy Farm

• Establishment: Founded in 1910 by Gandhi’s associate Herman Kallenbach.
• Inspiration: Named after Russian writer and moralist Leo Tolstoy, whom Gandhi admired.
• Purpose: Provided housing for satyagrahis’ families and sustenance for activists.
• Educational Experiment: Modeled after Phoenix Farm (established in 1904) inspired by John Ruskin’s ideas.
• Activities: Included manual labor, vocational training, and co-educational classes.
• Philosophical Objective: Instilled ideals of social service, citizenship, and respect for manual work.

Gandhi’s Experience in South Africa

• Mass Mobilization: Gandhi observed the capacity of the masses to participate and sacrifice for causes.
• Unity: Successfully united Indians of different religions and classes under his leadership.
• Leadership Challenges: Recognized the need for leaders to make unpopular decisions for the greater good.
• Evolution of Leadership: Developed his unique style of leadership and political techniques.
• Technique of Satyagraha: Gandhi formulated Satyagraha based on truth and non-violence, integrating elements from Indian tradition, Christian principles, and Tolstoy’s philosophy.
• Basic Tenets of Satyagraha: Included non-cooperation, boycott, acceptance of suffering, absence of hatred, and bravery in the face of adversity.

Satyagraha: Gandhi’s Technique of Non-Violent Resistance

• Origin:Developed by Gandhi in South Africa
• Core Principles:
  • Truth (Satya)
  • Non-Violence (Ahimsa)
• Inspired by:
  • Indian tradition
  • Christian concept of turning the other cheek
  • Tolstoy’s philosophy of non-violent resistance

Key Tenets (7):

1. Non-submission to Wrongs:Resist injustice peacefully and fearlessly.
2. Truthfulness:Always uphold truth.
3. Withdrawal & Boycott:Disrupt unjust systems through non-cooperation.
4. Methods:Non-payment of taxes, shunning honors/authority.
5. Suffering for Truth:Willingness to endure hardship for a cause.
6. No Hatred:Maintain goodwill towards the oppressor.
7. Courage & Strength:Satyagraha requires bravery, not cowardice.

 

Gandhi’s Return to India (1915)

• Focus on Understanding Conditions:
  • Toured India for a year to assess the situation of the masses.
  • Avoided political stances for initial period.
• Discontent with Political Movements:
  • Believed moderate politics had limitations.
  • Considered Home Rule agitation (popular then) premature during wartime (WWI).
• Satyagraha: The Chosen Path
  • Advocated non-violent satyagraha as the key to achieving nationalist goals.
  • Refused to join existing political parties unless they adopted satyagraha.

 

Gandhi’s Early Civil Disobedience Movements (1917-1918)

1. Champaran Satyagraha (1917): First Civil Disobedience

• Issue:Oppression of farmers by indigo planters in Champaran, Bihar.
  • Forced cultivation of indigo on 3/20th of land (tinkathia system).
  • High rents and illegal dues demanded by planters.
• Action:
  • Gandhi intervened upon request by Rajkumar Shukla (local leader).
  • Defied order to leave Champaran, initiating civil disobedience.
  • Gathered evidence on exploitation faced by farmers.
• Outcome:
  • Champaran Agrarian Enquiry Committee formed with Gandhi as a member.
  • Tinkathia system abolished.
  • Compensation awarded to farmers for illegal exactions.
  • Planters left the area within a decade.
• Key Figures:Rajendra Prasad, Mazharul-Haq, Mahadev Desai, Narhari Parekh, J.B. Kripalani, Brajkishore Prasad, Anugrah Narayan Sinha, Ramnavmi Prasad, Shambhusharan Varma.

 

2. Ahmedabad Mill Strike (1918): First Hunger Strike

• Issue:Labor dispute over wages and bonus in Ahmedabad textile mills.
  • Mill owners wanted to discontinue plague bonus.
  • Workers demanded 50% wage hike due to wartime inflation.
  • Mill owners offered only 20% increase.
• Action:
  • Gandhi intervened at the request of Anusuya Sarabhai (social worker).
  • Advised workers to strike and demand a 35% wage increase.
  • Undertook a fast unto death to pressure mill owners.
• Outcome:
  • Issue referred to a tribunal.
  • Workers received a 35% wage hike.
  • Anusuya Sarabhai later formed the Ahmedabad Textile Labour Association (1920).

Kheda Satyagraha (1918): Non-Cooperation Against Revenue Collection

• Cause:Crop failure due to drought in Kheda district of Gujarat.
• Demand:Farmers requested suspension of revenue assessment for 1919.
• Action:
  • Gandhi advised farmers to withhold tax payment (spiritual leader).
  • Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel and other local leaders provided on-ground organization.
  • Farmers maintained discipline and unity despite property seizures.
• Outcome:
  • Government agreed to:
    • Suspend tax for 1919 and 1920.
    • Reduce tax rate increase.
    • Return confiscated property.
  • Kheda peasantry awakened to the fight for independence.

Gains from Champaran, Ahmedabad, and Kheda (1917-1918)

• Efficacy of Satyagraha:Gandhi demonstrated the power of non-violent resistance.
• Connection with Masses:Gandhi gained understanding of the people’s strengths and weaknesses.
• Increased Support:Earned respect and commitment, especially from youth.

Rowlatt Act (1919): Suppressing Dissent

Context:

• Montford Reforms (constitutional reforms) promised.
• Government sought additional control to stifle dissent.

The Rowlatt Act:

• Passed in March 1919.
• Based on recommendations of Rowlatt Commission.
• Allowed for:
  • Detention without trial for 2 years.
  • Arrest based on suspicion of “treason.”
  • Secret trials without legal representation.
  • Special courts with limited evidence rules.
  • Suspension of habeas corpus.
• Replaced wartime restrictions with permanent law.
• Indian members of Legislative Council resigned in protest (including Jinnah, Malaviya, Haq).

 

Rowlatt Act and Satyagraha (1919)

Context:

• Disappointment with limited Montford Reforms.
• Rowlatt Act imposed harsh restrictions on dissent.

Satyagraha Against Rowlatt Act:

• Gandhi called for nationwide protests.
• Planned methods:
  • Hartal (strike) with fasting and prayer.
  • Civil disobedience and courting arrest.
• Shift in National Movement:
  • Focus turned towards mass participation.
  • Peasants, artisans, urban poor became active.

Escalation and Violence:

• Large-scale anti-British demonstrations erupted before planned protests.
• Amritsar, Punjab, witnessed particularly explosive situation.
• British Lieutenant Governor, Michael O’Dwyer, used harsh measures to control protests.

 

Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (April 13, 1919)

• Trigger:Arrest of nationalist leaders, Saifuddin Kitchlew and Satyapal.
• Gathering at Jallianwala Bagh:
  • Large crowd, mostly unaware of city restrictions, assembled for Baisakhi festival.
  • Local leaders called for a protest meeting at the venue.
• Massacre:
  • Brigadier-General Dyer ordered troops to surround the gathering and open fire without warning.
  • Estimated casualties:
    • British sources: 379 dead, 1100 wounded.
    • Indian National Congress: 1500+ injured, 1000+ killed.
  • 1650 bullets fired into the crowd.

Aftermath:

• Nationwide outrage and humiliation.
• Rabindranath Tagore renounced his knighthood in protest.
• Gandhi called off the Satyagraha movement.
• Jallianwala Bagh seen as a turning point:
  • Marked the beginning of the end of British Raj for many.
  • Gandhi declared cooperation with British impossible.
  • Paved the way for the Non-Cooperation Movement.
• Long-lasting impact:
  • Shaped Punjab’s resistance politics.
  • Inspired Bhagat Singh and Udham Singh (assassin of Michael O’Dwyer).

 

Hunter Committee Inquiry into Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (1919)

Formation:

• Ordered by British Secretary of State for India (Edwin Montagu) in response to public outrage.
• Established in October 1919, chaired by Lord William Hunter.
• Aimed to investigate unrest in Bombay, Delhi, and Punjab.
• Included 3 Indian members: Sir Chimanlal Setalvad, Pandit Jagat Narayan, Sardar Sahibzada Sultan Ahmad Khan.

Investigation:

• Gathered testimonies from witnesses in Delhi, Ahmedabad, Bombay, and Lahore.
• Examined General Dyer and other key figures.

Dyer’s Testimony:

• Claimed actions were necessary to deter future rebellion.
• Justified heavy firing to “strike terror” and “avoid looking foolish.”
• Showed no remorse for failing to aid the wounded.

Committee Report (March 1920):

• Unanimously condemned Dyer’s actions.
• Criticized:
  • Lack of warning to disperse the crowd.
  • Excessive firing and motivation to inflict “moral effect.”
  • Exceeding authority.
• Found no evidence of a planned rebellion in Punjab.

Minority Report (Indian Members):

• Highlighted insufficient publicity of restrictions on gatherings.
• Emphasized presence of innocent people in the crowd.
• Criticized Dyer’s inaction to help the wounded.
• Termed Dyer’s actions “inhuman and un-British.”

Aftermath:

• No penalties imposed on Dyer due to prior approval from superiors and Indemnity Act.
• Winston Churchill (British Secretary of State for War) condemned the massacre.
• Dyer dismissed from command in March 1920 but received pension and half pay.
• Public opinion divided:
  • House of Lords supported Dyer.
  • Morning Post raised funds for Dyer with support from Rudyard Kipling.
  • Golden Temple priests briefly honored Dyer, sparking calls for Sikh shrine reforms.

Congress Condemns Jallianwala Bagh

• Appointed inquiry committee (Motilal Nehru, C.R. Das, others).
• Criticized Dyer’s act as “inhuman.”
• Opposed implementation of martial law in Punjab.

 

Important Leaders

1.Saifuddin Kitchlew (1888-1963)

Early Life and Activism

• Barrister with a legal practice in Amritsar
• Influenced by Gandhi, joined the Non-Cooperation Movement
• Opposed the Rowlatt Act and participated in protests

Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (1919)

• Arrested alongside Gandhi for leading protests
• Public outrage at their arrest led to the Jallianwala Bagh massacre

Nationalist Politics

• Advocated for a united Indian nationalism
• General Secretary of the All India Congress Committee (AICC)
• Opposed the partition of India

Later Life

• Became a leader of the peace movement

 

2. Bhagat Singh (1907-1931)

Early Life and Influences (1907-1923)

• Born Bhaganwala in 1907 to a petty-bourgeois Jat family in Punjab.
• Grew up during a period of transition between revolutionary and Gandhian phases of the independence movement.

Revolution and the Hindustan Republican Association (1923-1928)

• Joined the National College, Lahore, known for its nationalist ideology.
• Became a member of the Hindustan Republican Association (HRA) in 1924, advocating armed revolution.
• Authored key documents like “Philosophy of the Bomb” and manifestos for the HRA and Naujawan Bharat Sabha (militant youth organization).

Revolutionary Activities (1925-1931)

• Founded the Naujawan Bharat Sabha in 1925.
• Associated with the Workers and Peasants Party and its magazine Kirti.
• Arrested for the first time in 1927 on charges related to the Kakori Case.
• Led the Hindustan Socialist Republican Association (HSRA) formed from the HRA in 1928.
• In 1928, to avenge Lala Lajpat Rai’s death in a police lathi charge, Bhagat Singh and associates mistakenly shot British police officer J.P. Saunders (Lahore Conspiracy Case).
• Bombed the Central Legislative Assembly in 1929 to protest repressive bills. Surrendered with B.K. Dutt to promote their cause.
• Re-arrested for the Saunders murder and bomb-making.

Martyrdom and Legacy (1931-Present)

• Executed alongside Sukhdev and Rajguru on March 23, 1931, becoming martyrs for Indian independence.
• March 23rd is commemorated as Martyrs’ Day in India.
• Known for his writings like “Why I Am an Atheist” and “The Jail Notebook.”

 

3. Udham Singh (1899-1940)

Early Life and Influences

• Born: 1899, Sunam, Punjab (Shaheed-i-Azam Sardar Udham Singh)
• Deeply affected by the Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (1919)
• Inspired by Bhagat Singh’s revolutionary ideals

Ghadar Party Activism (1924-1927)

• Joined the Ghadar Party in 1924 to overthrow British rule
• Arrested in 1927 for possessing illegal firearms while returning to India

Assassination of Michael O’Dwyer (1940)

• On March 13, 1940, shot Michael O’Dwyer in London (mistaken for General Dyer)
• O’Dwyer was the Lieutenant Governor of Punjab during the Jallianwala Bagh Massacre
• Sentenced to death and hanged in July 1940

Ghadar Party (1913- )

• Indian revolutionary organization founded in the US (1913) by migrant Indians
• Aimed to liberate India through armed struggle
• Established by Lala Har Dayal and led by Baba Sohan Singh Bhakna
• Inspired by egalitarian ideals and opposed British colonialism

 

4. Rabindranath Tagore (1861-1941)

Life and Recognition

• Born: May 7, 1861, Calcutta (Kolkata)
• Nicknames: Gurudev, Kabiguru, Biswakabi
• Credited with introducing Indian culture to the West
• First non-European Nobel Prize laureate in Literature (1913)
• Friend of Mahatma Gandhi

Literary and Artistic Achievements

• Reshaped Bengali literature and music
• Composed over 2,000 songs (“Rabindra Sangeet”)
• Modernized Bengali prose and poetry
• Notable works: Gitanjali, Ghare-Baire, Gora, Manasi
• Wrote national anthems for India and Bangladesh

Education and Social Reform

• Founded Visva-Bharati University (1921) to challenge traditional education
• Believed in “unity in diversity” for India

Legacy

• Renounced his knighthood in protest of the Jallianwala Bagh massacre
• Inspirational quotes: “You can’t cross the sea by standing and staring…”
• Died: August 7, 1941, Calcutta (Kolkata)

 

5. Acharya Kripalani (1888-1982)

Early Life and Education (1888-1927)

• Born Jivatram Bhagwandas Kripalani on November 11, 1888, in Hyderabad, Sindh (now Pakistan)
• Earned the nickname “Acharya” (teacher) while teaching at Gujarat Vidyapith

Freedom Activism (1917-1947)

• Joined the freedom movement and became a follower of Gandhi by 1917
• Participated in major movements like Non-Cooperation, Civil Disobedience, and Quit India
• Became President of the Indian National Congress (INC) during India’s independence in 1947
• Served in the Interim government and the Constituent Assembly

Post-Independence Politics (1947-1982)

• Co-founded the Kisan Mazdoor Praja Party (KMPP) after leaving the INC
• Elected to the Lok Sabha four times (1952, 1957, 1963, 1967) as a Praja Socialist Party member
• Known for being a critic of Nehru and Indira Gandhi’s policies