CHAPTER-9 : Chalcolithic Cultures
Ancient History of India
OLD NCERT
Short Notes or Revision Notes
Chalcolithic Cultures (Copper-Stone Age)
Emergence and Spread
- Successor to Neolithic period
- Marked by introduction of copper tools (alongside stone)
Sites and Regions
- Southeastern Rajasthan:Ahar & Gilund (Banas Valley)
- Western Madhya Pradesh (Malwa):Kayatha & Eran
- Western Maharashtra (Jorwe Culture):Most extensive excavations
- Jorwe (type-site), Nevasa, Daimabad, Chandoli, Songaon, Inamgaon, Prakash, Nasik
- Dates: c. 1400 to 700 BC
- Rural settlements, some near urban (Daimabad, Inamgaon)
- Semi-arid areas with brown-black soil and ber/babul vegetation
- Other Sites:
- Navdatoli (Narmada River)
- Vindhyan region (Allahabad district)
- Eastern India (Ganges & tributaries): Chirand, Pandu Rajar Dhibi, Mahishdal
- Bihar: Senuar, Sonpur, Taradih
- Eastern Uttar Pradesh: Khairadih, Narhan
Tools and Technology
- Stone tools:Used alongside copper implements
- Ahar Culture (Rajasthan):No microliths, focus on copper (flat axes, bangles, sheets, bronze sheet)
- Jorwe Culture (Maharashtra):Flat copper axes, chisels
- Pottery:Black-and-red ware (common after 2000 BC)
- Painted pottery in Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan
- Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar: Channel-spouted pots, dishes/bowls on stands
Lifestyle and Subsistence
- Domesticated animals:Cows, sheep, goats, pigs, buffaloes
- Agriculture:Crops grown varied by region
- Rajasthan: Millets
- Deccan: Cotton, ber, linseed, rai, bajra
- Eastern India: Rice
- Settlements:
- Mostly small, except Ahar & Gilund (Rajasthan) – 4 hectares
- Houses: Stone (Ahar), mud (Maharashtra), some with ovens and pits
- Inamgaon (Maharashtra): Largest settlement, fortified with moat
- Social stratification suggested by house location and burial practices (e.g., grave goods)
Arts and Crafts
- Bead manufacture (carnelian, steatite, quartz crystal)
- Spinning and weaving (spindle whorls found in Malwa)
- Textiles: Cotton, flax, silk (cotton, silk, semal)
Religion and Burial Practices
- Mother goddess figurines (Maharashtra)
- Bull figurines (Malwa, Rajasthan) – symbol of religious cult
- Burial in urns (Maharashtra) with grave goods (copper objects)
- Unearthed nude clay figurines (Maharashtra)
Social Organization
- Settlement patterns and burials suggest emerging social inequalities
- Inamgaon (Maharashtra): Craftsmen on fringes, possible “chief” at center
- Differential burial goods (e.g., children’s necklaces) hint at social status
Harappan Connections and Chronology
- Ganeshwar (Rajasthan):Pre-Harappan Chalcolithic culture (2800-2200 BC)
- Copper objects (arrowheads, spearheads, bangles, etc.)
- Terracotta cake resembling Indus type
- Microliths and Ochre Colored Pottery (OCP)
- Supplied copper to Harappa
- Partly agricultural, largely hunting
Regional Variations
- Pre-Harappan & Coexistent Chalcolithic Cultures:Found in North, West, Central India
- Kalibangan (Rajasthan), Banawali (Haryana), Kot Diji (Sindh, Pakistan)
- Kayatha Culture (Rajasthan): 2000-1800 BC, with some Harappan elements
- Malwa Culture (Madhya Pradesh):1700-1200 BC, non-Harappan (Navdatoli, Eran, Nagda)
- Jorwe Culture (Maharashtra):1400-700 BC, independent of Harappan (except for Vidarbha, Konkan)
- Southern & Eastern India:Independent Chalcolithic cultures (Vindhya region, Bihar, West Bengal)
Significance of Chalcolithic Cultures
- Precursors to Indus Valley Civilization
- Promoted spread of farming communities (Sindh, Baluchistan, Rajasthan)
- Examples:Amri & Kot Diji (Sindh), Kalibangan & Ganeshwar (Rajasthan)
Chalcolithic Cultures in Eastern India
- 138 sites identified, only 14 excavated (Uttar Pradesh, Bihar)
- Less copper use compared to central/western India (mostly stone tools)
- Mid-Gangetic valley & West Bengal: c. 1500-700 BC (Pandu Rajar Dhibi, Mahishdal)
- Disappearance by 1200 BC (except Jorwe culture until 700 BC)
Megaliths in India
- Function:
Burial markers (3000 years ago)
- Location:Deccan, South India, Northeast, Kashmir
Burial Practices
- Brahmagiri (South India):Varied grave goods (gold beads, bangles, conch shells)
- Inamgaon (Maharashtra):3600-2700 years ago
- Adults buried extended (north facing)
- Some burials within houses
- Food/water vessels placed with dead
- Unique burial: large clay jar, courtyard of central settlement house (with granary), body in cross-legged position
Significance of the Chalcolithic Phase
- Pioneered Painted Pottery:First culture to use painted pottery in India.
- Regional Variations:
- South India:Neolithic transitioned smoothly into Chalcolithic (“Neolithic-Chalcolithic”).
- Western Maharashtra & Rajasthan:Chalcolithic cultures emerged later, possibly from colonizers.
- Settlements:
- Central India (Malwa):Early settlements (Kayatha, Eran).
- Western Maharashtra:Later settlements.
- Eastern India (Bihar, WB):Much later settlements (Chirand, Pandu Rajar Dhibi).
- Fortifications:Seen in Kayatha, Eran (MP), Inamgaon (Maharashtra).
- Eastern settlements:Simpler structures (post-holes, round houses).
- Burial Practices:
- Maharashtra:North-south body placement.
- South India:East-west body placement.
- Western India:Extended burial.
- Eastern India:Fractional burial.
Limitations of Chalcolithic Cultures
- Agriculture:
- Limited tools: Perforated stone discs only (not ideal for large-scale farming)
- Iron implements needed for intensive cultivation (absent in Chalcolithic cultures)
- High infant mortality rate
Copper Hoards and Ochre-Coloured Pottery Phase
- Copper hoards:Found across a wide area (West Bengal to Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh to Uttar Pradesh).
- Contain various objects (rings, celts, hatchets, swords, harpoons, spearheads, human figures).
- Largest hoard: Gungeria (Madhya Pradesh).
- Concentrated in the Ganga-Yamuna Doab.
- Ochre-Coloured Pottery:Found in the upper Ganga-Yamuna Doab.
- Stray finds:Copper hoards in Jharkhand plateau and Rajasthan (Khetri zone).
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