Chapter-6 : People’s Resistance Against British Rule Before 1857

Arora IAS Modern History Notes 

Who Resisted?

• Peasants, artisans, tribals, rulers (active or deposed), military personnel (both British and Indian), religious leaders (Hindu and Muslim).
• Examples:
  • Benares agitation (1810) – Urban poor against house tax.
  • Surat riots (1814) – Against salt duty.
  • Bareilly rising (1816) – Against police and municipal taxes.

Forms of Resistance:

• Bipan Chandra’s categorization:
  • Civil rebellions (urban protests)
  • Tribal uprisings
  • Peasant movements
• Military revolts by Indian sepoys(added for comprehensiveness)

Reasons for Resistance:

• Colonial policies:
  • Revenue extraction focus.
  • Unresponsive administration.
  • Laws favoring British interests.
• Economic hardship:
  • High land revenue demands.
  • New taxes.
  • Eviction from land.
• Devastation of Indian industries:
  • Promotion of British goods.
  • Heavy duties on Indian products.
  • Loss of jobs in traditional industries.
• Tribal grievances:
  • Loss of control over land and resources.

Overall Impact:

• Resistance movements expressed growing resentment against British rule.
• Set the stage for later movements, including the 1857 Sepoy Mutiny.

 

Civil Uprisings Against British Rule

Who Led?

• Dispossessed rulers, zamindars, poligars (South Indian landholders), ex-officials, religious leaders.
• Supported by peasants, artisans, demobilized soldiers.

Causes:

• Economic changes under British rule:
  • New land revenue system.
  • Loss of control over land and revenue for former elites.
• Decline of traditional elites:
  • Sidelined by British officials and new merchant class.
• Economic hardship:
  • Ruin of Indian handicraft industries due to British policies.
  • Loss of jobs and patrons for artisans.
• Religious motivations:
  • Priests and religious leaders impacted by decline of traditional elites.
• Resentment against British rule:
  • Feeling of foreign domination and disrespect.

Characteristics:

• Localized movements with specific grievances.
• Led by traditional elites seeking to restore old power structures.
• Not forward-looking in ideology.

 

Important Civil Uprisings Against British Rule

Sanyasi Revolt (1763-1800)

• Cause:Famine of 1770, harsh British economic rule.
• Location:Eastern India.
• Participants:Sanyasis (ascetics), peasants, zamindars, demobilized soldiers.
• Leaders:Majnum Shah, Chirag Ali, Musa Shah, Bhawani Pathak, Debi Chaudhurani (woman leader).
• Significance:Early resistance movement involving both Hindus and Muslims.

Revolt in Midnapore and Dhalbhum (1766-1774)

• Cause:Introduction of new land revenue system by British.
• Location:Midnapore and Dhalbhum regions.
• Leaders:Zamindars – Damodar Singh, Jagannath Dhal.
• Outcome:Zamindars dispossessed by 1800s.

Revolt of Moamarias (1769-1799)

• Cause:Low-caste peasants’ rebellion against Ahom kings of Assam.
• Location:
• Leaders:Moamarias (followers of Aniruddhadeva).
• Outcome:Weakened Ahom kingdom fell to Burmese invasion and later British rule.

Civil Uprisings in Gorakhpur, Basti, and Bahraich (1781)

• Cause:Excessive revenue demands by British East India Company.
• Location:Gorakhpur, Basti, and Bahraich regions.
• Outcome:Rebellion suppressed, British revenue official dismissed.

Revolt of Raja of Vizianagaram (1794)

• Cause:British betrayal of treaty and demand for tribute.
• Location:
• Leader:Raja Vizayaramaraju.
• Outcome:Raja died in battle, Vizianagaram under British rule.

Revolt of Dhundia in Bednur (1799-1800)

• Cause:Local Maratha leader against British rule after fall of Mysore.
• Location:Bednur region.
• Leader:Dhundia Wagh.
• Outcome:Dhundia killed in battle, but became a symbol of resistance.

Kerala Varma Pazhassi Raja (1797, 1800-1805)

• Location:Malabar region
• Leader:Kerala Varma Pazhassi Raja (“Lion of Kerala”)
• Cause:British violation of treaty, imposition of high taxes.
• Course of Events:
  • Resisted Hyder Ali, Tipu Sultan, and British.
  • 1793: Peasants rebel against high taxes under British-appointed Raja.
  • 1797: Peace treaty with British.
  • 1800: Renewed conflict over Wayanad territory.
  • Led guerrilla warfare with Nairs, Mappilas, and Pathans.
  • November 1805: Killed in a gunfight.

Civil Rebellion in Awadh (1799)

• Location:Awadh
• Leader:Wazir Ali Khan, former Nawab
• Cause:Ousted by British, revenge for replacement.
• Events:
  • 1797: Wazir Ali Khan becomes Nawab with British help.
  • Conflict with British, replaced by uncle.
  • January 1799: Killed British resident and others in Benares (“Massacre of Benares”).
  • Gathered rebel army, defeated by British.
  • Surrendered, imprisoned in Calcutta.

Uprisings in Ganjam and Gumsur (1800, 1835-1837)

• Location:Ganjam district, Northern Circars
• Leaders:Strikara Bhanj (zamindar), Jlani Deo, Jagannath Deo, Dhananjaya Bhanj (Strikara’s son), Doora Bisayi
• Cause:Refusal to pay revenue, oppressive British collector.
• Events:
  • 1797: Strikara Bhanj refuses to pay revenue.
  • 1800: Open rebellion against British.
  • Strikara joined by other zamindars.
  • British capture Jagannath Deo (1804).
  • Compromise: Strikara regains some control (1807-08).
  • 1815: Dhananjaya Bhanj forces father to leave, rebels again.
  • Strikara returns, regains zamindari (1819-1830).
  • 1835: Dhananjaya rebels again due to arrears.
  • Rebellion reduces British control, Dhananjaya dies (Dec. 1835).
  • Doora Bisayi leads continued resistance.
  • February 1837: Doora Bisayi captured, zamindari forfeited.

Uprisings in Palamau (1800-1802)

• Location:Palamau region
• Leader:Bhukhan Singh (Chero chief)
• Cause:Agrarian and feudal system issues.
• Events:
  • 1800: Bhukhan Singh leads rebellion.
  • British forces suppress rebellion over two years.
  • 1802: Bhukhan Singh dies, rebellion ends.

Poligars’ Revolt (1795-1805)

• Location:South India (Tinneveli, Ramanathapuram, Sivaganga, Sivagiri, Madurai, North Arcot)
• Leaders:Polygars (palayakkarargal) – Kattabomman Nayakan (Panjalankurichi), Marudu brothers (Sivaganga), Oomathurai (Kattabomman’s brother), Yedaragunta poligar, Charagallu poligar.
• Cause:British control, taxation, loss of autonomy.
• Events (in phases):
  • 1781: Nawab of Arcot cedes control to British, angering poligars.
  • 1795-1799: First revolt led by Kattabomman Nayakan against high taxes.
    • British capture and execute Kattabomman with associates.
  • 1801: Second, more violent revolt by escaped poligars.
    • Rebels capture forts, join Marudu brothers’ rebellion (suppressed Oct. 1801).
    • British destroy Panjalankurichi fort, erase its name.
  • 1803-1805: North Arcot poligars rebel against loss of revenue collection rights.
    • British suppress rebellion, exile or pension some poligars.

Uprisings in Haryana Region (1803-1810)

• Location:Present-day Haryana
• Cause:British takeover after Treaty of Surji-Arjungaon (1803).
• Resistance:
  • Sikh chiefs of Ambala, Karnal, and Thanesar.
  • Muslim Bhatti Rajputs led by Zabita Khan and Khan Bahadur Khan in western Haryana.
  • Jats and Ranghars in Rohtak, Bhiwani, and eastern Hisar.
• British Response:
  • Military expeditions to suppress rebellions.
  • Capture of Fatehabad, Sirsa, Rania, and Bhiwani.
  • Conversion of Hansi fort into a military cantonment.

Diwan Velu Thampi’s Revolt (1808-1809)

• Location:Travancore
• Cause:Harsh British conditions following subsidiary alliance (1805).
• Leader:Diwan Velu Thampi (Prime Minister)
• Events:
  • Velu Thampi opposed British interference and highhandedness.
  • “Kundara Proclamation” called for armed resistance.
  • Large-scale rebellion against British.
  • Travancore Maharaja defected to British side.
  • Velu Thampi committed suicide to avoid capture.
  • Rebellion ended.

Disturbances in Bundelkhand (1808-1812)

• Location:Bundelkhand
• Cause:British conquest after Second Anglo-Maratha Wars (1803-1805).
• Resistance:
  • Bundela chiefs from numerous forts (around 150).
  • Lakshaman Dawa (Ajaygarh Fort) – surrendered in 1809.
  • Darya Singh (Kalanjar Fort) – resistance suppressed in 1812.
  • Gopal Singh (military adventurer) – eluded British capture for 4 years.
• British Response:
  • Military suppression.
  • “Ikarnamahs” – agreements binding Bundelkhand chieftains.

Parlakimedi Outbreak (1813-1834)

• Location:Parlakimedi, Ganjam district (Odisha)
• Leaders:Zamindars and rajas led by Narayan Deo and his family.
• Cause:Resistance against British control.
• Events:
  • Narayan Deo’s initial rebellion (1768) led to British military action.
  • Gajapathi Deo (Narayan Deo’s son) became zamindar.
  • Continued resistance by Narayan Deo and family.
  • George Russell appointed commissioner to suppress revolt (1832).
  • Rebellion pacified by 1834.

Rising at Bareilly (1816)

• Location:Bareilly
• Cause:Imposition of police tax, religious tensions.
• Events:
  • Mufti Muhammad Aiwaz petitions against police tax (March 1816).
  • Police injure woman while collecting tax, sparking a clash.
  • Muslims from nearby areas join rebellion.
  • Rebels murder son of a British judge (April 1816).
  • Uprising suppressed by British military (over 300 rebels killed/wounded/imprisoned).

Upsurge in Hathras (1817)

• Location:Hathras
• Cause:High revenue demands, resistance to fort dismantling.
• Leader:Dayaram, talukdar of Aligarh.
• Events:
  • Dayaram resists high revenue demands, shelters fugitives.
  • British attack Hathras fort (February 1817).
  • Dayaram escapes but surrenders later, granted pension.
  • Raja of Mursan also submits to British demands.

Paika Rebellion (1817-1818)

• Location:Odisha
• Cause:British land revenue policy, dispossession of Paiks.
• Leaders:Bakshi Jagabandhu Bidyadhar (military chief), Mukunda Deva (Raja of Khurda).
• Events:
  • British conquest of Odisha (1803), dethronement of Raja weakens Paiks (hereditary militia).
  • Land revenue policy angers zamindars and peasants.
  • Khonds from Gumsur join forces with Paiks (March 1817).
  • Jagabandhu leads rebellion, initial success forces British retreat.
  • Rebellion spreads across Odisha, Jagabandhu declared outlaw.
  • Guerilla warfare by rebels, brutal repression by British (1818).
  • Priests sheltering Jagabandhu hanged.
  • Jagabandhu surrenders (1825) – some sources say captured and died in captivity (1829).
  • Rebellion leads to concessions by British – reduced land revenue, fixed tenures etc.

Waghera Rising (1818-1820)

• Location:Okha Mandal (Gujarat)
• Cause:Resentment against Gaekwad’s exactions supported by British.
• Events:
  • Waghera chiefs raid British territory (1818-1819).
  • Peace treaty signed in November 1820.

Ahom Revolt (1828)

• Location:Assam
• Cause:British renege on pledge to withdraw from Assam after First Burma War.
• Leaders:Gomdhar Konwar (Ahom prince), Dhanjay Borgohain, Jairam Khargharia Phukan.
• Events:
  • British attempt to annex Ahom territories sparks rebellion.
  • Rebels led by Gomdhar Konwar establish him as king.
  • British adopt conciliatory approach, restore some territories to Assamese king.

Surat Salt Agitations (1840s)

• Location:Surat
• Cause:Anti-British sentiment, increased salt duty.
• Events:
  • Public outrage over salt duty hike (1844) leads to attacks on Europeans.
  • British back down and withdraw salt tax increase.
  • Similar protests and government back down in 1848 against new weights and measures.

Kolhapur and Savantvadi Revolts (1844 onwards)

• Location:Kolhapur and Savantvadi (Maharashtra)
• Cause:Discontent with British administration.
• Events:
  • Disbanded Gadkari soldiers (hereditary Maratha military) revolt in Kolhapur (1844).
  • Occupy Samangarh and Bhudargarh forts.
  • Savantvadi region with history of rebellion (1830, 1836, 1838) sees renewed uprising.
  • British implement various laws to control the region.

Wahabi Movement (1820s onwards)

• Origin:Islamic revivalist movement founded by Syed Ahmed of Rai Bareilly.
• Cause:Opposition to Western influence on Islam, desire for pure Islamic society.
• Activities:
  • Advocated return to Prophet’s time Islam.
  • Declared Syed Ahmed as Imam (leader).
  • Established nationwide organization with secret code and regional leaders (Khalifas).
  • Based in Sithana (north-west India), with centers in Patna, Hyderabad etc.
  • Declared Jihad against Sikh kingdom (pre-British rule).
  • After British annexation of Punjab in 1849, focused attacks on British rule.
  • Spread anti-British sentiment.
• British Response:
  • Military operations against Wahabi base in Sithana (1860s).
  • Court cases against Wahabis on sedition charges.
  • Sporadic resistance continued till late 19th century.

Kuka Movement (1840s onwards)

• Location:Western Punjab
• Founder:Bhagat Jawahar Mal (Sian Saheb)
• Later Leader:Baba Ram Singh (founder of Namdhari Sikh sect)
• Cause:Religious and social reform, anti-British sentiment.
• Tenets:
  • Abolition of caste system and discrimination within Sikhs.
  • Discouragement of meat, alcohol, and drugs.
  • Permission for intermarriage and widow remarriage.
  • Women’s empowerment (leaving seclusion).
• Political Aims:
  • Removal of British rule and restoration of Sikh rule in Punjab.
  • Swadeshi (use of indigenous goods) and boycott of British products/education/laws (precursors to later nationalist movements).
• British Response:
  • Suppressive measures (1863-1872).
  • Deportation of Baba Ram Singh to Rangoon (1872).

 

Peasant Movements with Religious Overtones (Pre-1857)

Common Cause: Protests against exploitation by zamindars (landlords), moneylenders, and British policies. Aims included occupancy rights and reduced rents.

Narkelberia Uprising (1782-1831)

• Leader:Mir Nithar Ali (Titu Mir)
• Location:West Bengal
• Cause:Imposition of beard tax on Faraizi Muslims by Hindu landlords, oppression by British indigo planters.
• Significance:Considered the first armed peasant uprising against the British, later merged with the Wahabi Movement.

The Pagal Panthis (1825-1835)

• Location:Mymensingh district (Bengal)
• Founders:Karam Shah (founder), Tipu (son who led the movement)
• Participants:Hajong and Garo tribes
• Cause:Oppression by zamindars
• Actions:Refused to pay rent above a certain limit, attacked zamindars’ houses.
• Outcome:Violently suppressed by the government, but led to an equitable arrangement to protect peasants.

Faraizi Revolt (1838-1857)

• Leaders:Haji Shariatullah (founder), Dudu Miyan (son)
• Location:Eastern Bengal
• Religion:Followers of a Muslim sect advocating religious, social, and political reforms.
• Cause:Expelling British rule, supporting tenants against zamindars.
• Outcome:Most Faraizis joined the Wahabi movement.
• Note:Continued disturbances till 1857.

Moplah Uprisings (1836-1854)

• Location:Malabar
• Participants:Moplah Muslims
• Cause:Increased revenue demands, reduced land size, official oppression.
• Outcome:22 rebellions occurred, none successful.

Peasants’ Role in the 1857 Revolt

• Participation:Active in some areas, particularly western Uttar Pradesh.
• Alliances:United with local feudal leaders against British rule.
• Post-Revolt:Plight worsened due to British support for landed classes.
• Examples:
  • Avadh: Land restored to taluqdars (landlords), peasants not protected by Rent Act.
  • Some regions: Peasants faced additional taxes as punishment for rebellion.

 

Tribal Revolts Against British Rule

Mainland vs. North-Eastern Revolts

• Mainland Revolts (Focus: Land & Forests)
  • Caused by:
    • Land settlements disrupting tribal ownership traditions and social fabric.
    • Loss of land due to agricultural expansion and influx of outsiders.
    • Curtailment of shifting cultivation and restrictions on forest use (timber, grazing).
    • Exploitation by police, traders, and moneylenders (outsiders).
    • Intrusive general laws clashing with tribal customs.
    • Christian missionaries seen as representatives of alien rule.
  • North-Eastern Revolts (Focus: Autonomy & Identity)
    • Differed due to:
      • Less concern for nationalist struggle; focus on autonomy or independence.
      • Control over land and forests, not agrarian-based rebellions.
      • Later British entry and longer duration of revolts.
      • De-sanskritization movements against Hindu influence (Meiteis vs. Brahmins).

Characteristics of Tribal Revolts

• Tribal Identity & Solidarity:
  • Unity based on ethnicity, targeting specific outsiders (moneylenders, traders).
• Resentment Against British Rule:
  • Opposition to imposed laws disrupting traditional socio-economic systems.
• Loss of Land & Forest Rights:
  • Land alienation due to private property laws, market forces, and infrastructure development.
• Messianic Leadership:
  • Revolts led by charismatic figures promising an end to suffering from outsiders.
• Limited Success:
  • Outdated weapons against British military superiority.

 

Important Tribal Movements 

Focus: Resistance against British policies and collaborators (zamindars, jagirdars) in central, west-central, and southern India.

The Pahariyas (Rajmahal Hills)

• Livelihood:Shifting cultivation, forest produce.
• Cause of Conflict:Loss of land and forest due to expanding settled agriculture.
• Resistance:Raids on plains settlements, led by Raja Jagganath (1778).
• British Response:Brutal attacks, pacification attempts (allowances for good behavior).

Revolt led by Tilka Manjhi (Santhal Pargana)

• Leader:Tilka Manjhi (Santhal)
• Cause:Exploitation by revenue collectors, police, landlords’ agents, drought of 1770.
• Methods:Guerilla warfare with women’s participation, joint front with Paharia Sardars.
• Achievements:Captured Ramgarh Camp (1778), attacked Bhagalpur (1784), killed British magistrate.
• Outcome:Captured and hanged by British (1785).

Jungle Mahal Revolt/Chuar Uprising (Midnapore, Bankura, Purulia)

• Participants:Bhumij tribals (Chuars), jungle zamindars, paiks (guards).
• Causes:
  • Increased revenue demands by zamindars.
  • Demolishing mud forts of zamindars by British (1767).
  • Replacement of local paiks with professional police.
  • Land dispossession due to Bengal Regulations.
• Leaders:Jagannath Singh (zamindar, 1768), Shyam Ganjan, Subla Singh, Dubraj (sardars, 1771), Durjan Singh (zamindar, 1798).
• Events:
  • Uprisings in 1768, 1771, 1798 (largest under Durjan Singh).
  • Goals: Stop revenue hikes, defend traditional way of life.
• Outcome:All rebellions suppressed by British.

Common Themes:

• Clash between tribal and colonial lifestyles.
• Defense of land and traditional economic practices.
• Resistance against exploitation and outsiders.

Tamar Revolt (1798)

• Location:Tamar (Chotanagpur region)
• Leader:Bholanath Sahay (Singh in some sources)
• Cause:Opposition to British imposed systems, anger against outsiders (“diku”).
• Participants:Munda tribals and their chiefs.
• Outcome:Suppressed by British expedition led by Lt. Cooper.

Kol Mutiny (1831)

• Location:Chhotanagpur (Ranchi, Singhbhum, Hazaribagh, Palamau, western Manbhum)
• Participants:Kols and other tribes.
• Cause:Land transfers to outsiders, oppressive taxes, British policies disrupting social order.
• Leader:Buddho Bhagat
• Actions:Killed/burned property of about 1000 outsiders.
• Outcome:Suppressed by large-scale British military operations.

Ho and Munda Uprisings (1820-1837)

• Location:Singhbhum (Jharkhand) and Chotanagpur
• Events:
  • 1820-1827: Ho revolt led by Raja of Parahat against British occupation of Singhbhum.
  • 1831: Joint Ho and Munda rebellion against new revenue policy and Bengali migration.
  • 1832-1837: Continued Ho operations.
• Cause:Opposition to British policies and migration disrupting traditional life.

Santhal Rebellions (1833, 1855-1856)

• Background:
  • Santhals migrated to Rajmahal area in late 18th century.
  • British encouraged Santhal settlement for revenue and cultivation.
  • Damin-i-koh agreement (1832-33) allocated foothills for Santhal agriculture.
  • Santhals lost land to Permanent Settlement and moneylenders.
• First Rebellion (1833):Dispute with Paharias over land use.
• Second Rebellion (1855-1856):
  • Cause: Exploitation by zamindars and moneylenders.
  • Leaders: Sidhu and Kanhu Murmu
  • Goal: Establish autonomous Santhal state.
  • Rebellion called “hul” (movement for liberation).
  • Outcome: Brutally suppressed by British in 1856.
  • Aftermath: Creation of Santhal Pargana with special laws.

Khond Uprisings (1837-1856)

• Location:Hilly tracts from Odisha to Andhra Pradesh (Srikakulam, Visakhapatnam)
• Leader:Chakra Bisoi (initial)
• Cause:Opposition to:
  • Suppression of human sacrifice.
  • New taxes.
  • Entry of zamindars.
• Outcome:Ended with Chakra Bisoi’s disappearance.
• Note:Later Khond rebellion (1914) aimed for autonomy under independent rule.

Koya Revolts (1803-1886)

• Location:Eastern Godavari region (Andhra Pradesh)
• Participants:Koyas and Khonda Sara chiefs.
• Revolts:1803, 1840, 1845, 1858, 1861, 1862, 1879-1880 (led by Tomma Sora), 1886 (led by Raja Anantayyar)
• Cause:Exploitation by police and moneylenders, new regulations, loss of forest rights.

Bhil Revolts (1817-1913)

• Location:Western Ghats (mountain passes between north and Deccan)
• Cause:
  • Economic distress.
  • British misgovernment.
• Revolts:1817-19, 1825, 1831, 1846.
• Later Movement:Govind Guru led Bhils (south Rajasthan) to fight for an autonomous Bhil Raj (1913).

Koli Risings (1829, 1839, 1844-1848)

• Location:Areas near Bhils
• Cause:Resentment against British rule:
  • Dismantling of Koli forts.
• Revolts:1829, 1839, 1844-1848.

Ramosi Risings (1822-1841)

• Location:Western Ghats
• Cause:Loss of livelihood due to:
  • British annexation of Maratha territories.
  • Loss of jobs held under Marathas.
• Leaders:Chittur Singh (1822), Umaji Naik (1825-26), Bapu Trimbakji Sawant (1825-26).
• Revolts:1822, 1825-26, 1829, 1839, 1840-41.
• Outcome:Mostly suppressed by British, some Ramosis recruited into British hill police.

Bokta Rising/Sardari Larai/Mukti Larai Movement (1858-1895)

• Location:Chotanagpur
• Cause:Regaining tribal land rights.
• Phases:
  • Early (1858-1890s): Tribal tenants vs. landlords (rent increase, eviction, harassment).
  • Later (1890s): Anti-European due to suspicion of collusion with landlords.
  • Overall goal: End British rule as root cause of tribal problems.
• Methods:Traditional weapons (bows, arrows).
• Outcome:Unsuccessful due to lack of organization and leadership.

Birsa Munda Revolt (1890s-1900)

• Leader:Birsa Munda
• Location:Singhbhum and Ranchi districts (Chotanagpur)
• Movement Name:Ulgulan (“Great Tumult”)
• Cause:
  • Disruption of traditional tribal life (social customs, land ownership).
  • Zamindari system introducing landlords and tenant system.
  • Exploitation by landlords (eviction, forced labor, debt).
• Goals:
  • Religious and political independence.
  • Establish a Munda Raj (Munda rule).
• Events:
  • Birsa Munda’s arrest and imprisonment (1898) fueled rebellion.
  • Revolt (Dec. 1899) targeted “dikus” (outsiders):
    • Christian missionaries.
    • Government officials.
  • Brutal suppression by British.
  • Birsa Munda’s death in prison (1900).
• Aftermath:
  • Weakened movement.
  • Government reforms:
    • Abolished forced labor (begar).
    • Tenancy Act of 1903 (recognized Munda land rights).
    • Chotanagpur Tenancy Act of 1908.
  • Birsa Munda became a legendary figure and inspiration for future movements.

Tana Bhagat Movement (1914-1921)

• Leader:Jatra Oraon (initially), Sibu Oraon (later)
• Location:Ranchi
• Nature:Primarily religious and non-violent.
• Cause:Agrarian discontent:
  • Forced labor (begar) imposed by zamindars.
  • Illegal rent increases.
  • Exploitation by moneylenders and missionaries.
• Goal:Reorder Oraon society.
  • Tana Bhagats: followers who discarded possessions and certain practices.
• Activities:
  • Satyagraha (non-violent resistance) before Gandhi’s movement.
• Uniqueness:Different from violent revolts of the past.
• Later Developments:
  • Joined Non-Cooperation Movement (1921).

Devi Movement (1922-1923)

• Location:South Gujarat
• Origin:Social movement led by Devi Salabai promoting hygiene and abstinence.
• Evolution:
  • Spread to broader tribal region and Surat city.
  • Targeted exploiters: landlords, moneylenders, liquor traders.
  • Became part of the Non-Cooperation Movement (late 1922).

Tribal Movements of the North-East Frontier Region

Movements Before 1857

• Ahoms’ Revolt (1828-1833, Assam)
  • Cause: Broken promises by British East India Company after Burmese War.
  • Goal: Maintain Ahom kingdom’s integrity.
  • Outcome: Suppressed, Ahom kingdom divided.
• Khasis’ Revolt (1830s, Jaintia & Garo Hills)
  • Leader: Tirath Singh (Nunklow ruler)
  • Cause: Opposition to British occupation of the hilly region.
  • Outcome: Suppressed by British.
• Singphos’ Rebellion (1830s, Assam)
  • Events:
    • 1839: Murder of British political agent.
    • 1843: Uprising led by Chief Nirang Phidu.
  • Outcome: Ultimately suppressed by British.
• Khasi Uprising (Early 1800s)
  • Cause: British construction project bringing outsiders to the region.
  • Leader: Tirath Singh (possibly linked to earlier Khasi revolt)
  • Goal: Drive away outsiders, resist British rule.
  • Outcome: Suppressed by British military by 1833.
• Singphos Rebellions (1830s-1840s, Assam)
  • A series of uprisings against British rule.
  • Events:
    • 1839: Killing of British political agent.
    • 1843: Uprising led by Chief Nirang Phidu.
  • Outcome: All rebellions eventually suppressed.
• Other Movements:
  • Syntengs of Jaintia Hills revolt (1860-1862).
  • Phulaguri peasants’ rebellion (1861).
  • Saflas revolt (1872-1873).
  • Kacha Nagas of Cachhar uprising (1882).
  • Women’s war in Manipur (1904).

Movements After 1857

• Kukis’ Revolt (1917-1919, Manipur)
  • Cause: Resentment against British labor recruitment during WWI.
  • Outcome: Suppressed by British.
• Revolts in Tripura
  • (a) Parikshit Jamatia (1863): Against tax hike and outsider settlement.
  • (b) Reangs’ revolt led by Ratnamani (1942-1943).
  • (c) Bharti Singh (1920s): Similar causes to (a).
• Zeliangsong Movement (1920s, Manipur)
  • Participants: Zemi, Liangmei, Rongmei tribes.
  • Cause: British failure to protect them from Kuki violence (1917-1919).
• Naga Movement (1905-1931, Manipur)
  • Leader: Jadonang
  • Goal: Establish a Naga Raj (Naga rule), end British rule.
  • Outcome: Suppressed by British.
• Heraka Cult (1930s, Manipur)
  • Leader: Gaidinliu
  • Goal: Religious movement opposing British rule.
  • Outcome: Suppressed, but Kabui Naga Association formed (1946).

Weaknesses of Tribal Uprisings

• Limited Scope:
  • Localized movements.
  • Arose from specific local issues.
• Leadership:
  • Traditional, semi-feudal leaders.
  • Focused on preserving old ways, not offering new systems.
• Limited Goals:
  • Reacted to common problems, not a unified national movement.
  • Centuries-old methods and ideology.
• Uneven Response:
  • British used concessions to divide opposition.
• Outmatched:
  • Inferior weapons and tactics compared to the British.