Chapter 24

National Landscape After World War II

Arora IAS Class Notes

National Upsurge in Final Years of British Rule (1943-1947)

Two Main Forces:

• Political Negotiations:
  • Tortuous discussions between British, Congress, and Muslim League.
  • Escalating communal violence.
  • Culminated in independence and partition.
• Mass Action:
  • Localized, militant movements by workers, peasants, and regional populations.
  • Took the form of strikes and revolts.
  • Examples: INA Release Movement, RIN Revolt, Tebhaga Movement, etc.

 

Shifting British Policy (1945-1947):

• Reason for Change:
  • Contrary to expectations, Indians remained defiant after leaders’ release (1945).
  • Wavell Plan failed to resolve the deadlock.
  • Labour Party’s victory in UK elections (July 1945).
• New British Government & Approach:
  • Clement Attlee (Prime Minister) and Pethick-Lawrence (Secretary of State for India).
  • Announced elections and a Constituent Assembly (August-September 1945).
  • More open to Indian demands due to:
    • Weakened post-war Britain.
    • Rise of US and USSR as superpowers, both favoring Indian independence.
    • Labour Party’s socialist leanings.
    • Anti-colonial movements across Southeast Asia.
    • Fear of renewed Indian unrest, including from the INA.
    • Need to hold elections (last ones in 1934-37).

 

Congress Campaign and INA Trials (1945-1946)

Nationalistic Aims in Election Campaign (Winter 1945-46):

• Focus: Mobilizing Indians against British rule, not just seeking votes.
• Highlighting nationalist sentiments:
  • Glorifying martyrs of the 1942 Quit India Movement.
  • Condemning British repression.
  • Setting up memorials, collecting relief funds for victims.
  • Threatening punishment for guilty officials.
• Devastating impact on British morale, especially government services.
• Heightened fears of Congress ministries’ return, particularly in provinces with harsh repression.

 

Mass Pressure and Shift in British Policy:

• Public outcry against INA POW trials, likened to “an edge of a volcano.”
• Initial British plan: Public trials for hundreds of INA prisoners, dismissal from service for others, and detention without trial for thousands more.
• Red Fort trials (November 1945) further inflamed tensions.
• Deployment of Indian troops to reinstate French and Dutch colonial rule in Southeast Asia fueled anti-imperialist sentiment.

Congress Support for INA Prisoners:

• Strong resolution at the first post-war Congress session (September 1945) backing the INA cause.
• Legal defense organized by prominent figures like Bhulabhai Desai and Jawaharlal Nehru.
• INA Relief and Enquiry Committee provided financial and employment assistance.
• Fundraising initiatives launched.

 

The INA Agitation: A Widespread Movement

• Unprecedented intensity and publicity through:
  • Extensive press coverage with editorials.
  • Distribution of pamphlets, sometimes threatening.
  • Graffiti expressing similar messages.
  • Public meetings and celebrations (INA Day, INA Week).
• Geographical spread: Major cities (Delhi, Bombay, Calcutta) to smaller towns and remote areas.
• Diverse participation:
  • Film stars, municipal committees, Indians abroad, religious institutions.
  • Shopkeepers, political parties, student groups, farmers’ conferences.
  • Women’s organizations.
• Support from a wide ideological spectrum:
  • Congress, Muslim League, Communist Party, regional parties, religious groups.
• Pro-INA sentiments even in traditionally loyal sections:
  • Government employees raising funds.
  • British officials and military personnel expressing sympathy.
• Central theme: Questioning Britain’s right to judge Indians in this matter.
• Growing perception of the issue as a conflict between “India vs. Britain.”

Three Nationalist Upsurges (Winter 1945-1946)

Calcutta:

• Nov 21, 1945:Student procession (Forward Bloc, SFI, Muslim League, Congress) protesting INA trials.
• Clash with police, lathi charge, stone throwing, firing (2 deaths).
• Feb 11, 1946:Muslim League students protest against 7-year sentence for INA officer Rashid Ali.
• Joined by Congress & communist students.
• Defied Section 144, arrests, lathi charge.

Bombay:

• Feb 18, 1946:RIN ratings’ strike on HMIS Talwar.
• Demands:
  • End racial discrimination (equal pay for Indians and white soldiers).
  • Better food.
  • Stop abuse by superiors.
  • Release arrested rating.
  • End INA trials.
  • Withdraw Indian troops from Indonesia.
• Raised tricolour, crescent, and hammer & sickle flags.
• Spread to other ships, processions with Congress flags.
• Public support – food, supplies.

Three-Stage Pattern:

1. Defiance and Repression:
   • Initial protests and clashes with authorities.
2. Citywide Unrest:
   • Anti-British sentiment, strikes, hartals, attacks on infrastructure.
3. National Sympathy and Solidarity:
   • Strikes in military establishments across India.
   • IAF strikes in Bombay, Poona, Calcutta, Jessore, Ambala.

Significance and Impact:

• Showcased mass militancy and defiance.
• Weakened British morale, particularly in armed forces.
• RIN revolt seen as a turning point against British rule.
• British concessions:
  • Limited INA trials (Dec 1, 1946).
  • Reduced sentences for first batch (Jan 1947).
  • Withdrawal of Indian troops from Southeast Asia (Feb 1947).
  • Parliamentary delegation to India (Nov 1946).
  • Cabinet Mission to India (Jan 1946).

Limitations and Unanswered Questions:

• Violent nature limited participation.
• Short-lived and geographically concentrated.
• Communal unity more tactical than widespread.
• British infrastructure for control remained.
• Uprisings controlled by authorities (Maratha battalion in Bombay).

Congress Strategy:

• Leftist view: Congress missed a revolutionary opportunity.
• Congress perspective: Uprisings were an extension of earlier nationalist activities.
• Official Congress disapproval due to tactics and timing.
• Negotiations prioritized over mass movements before British withdrawal.
• Gandhi opposed the RIN mutiny, advocating patience for leadership guidance.

 

Election Results

Congress Performance

• Non-Muslim votes: 91%.
• Central Assembly: Won 57 out of 102 seats.
• Provincial elections: Majority in most provinces, excluding Bengal, Sindh, and Punjab. Included NWFP and Assam.

Muslim League Performance

• Muslim votes: 86.6%.
• Central Assembly: Captured all 30 reserved seats.
• Provincial elections: Majority in Bengal and Sindh.
• Established dominance among Muslims, unlike in 1937.

Significant Features

• Communal voting due to separate electorates.
• Limited franchise: Less than 10% could vote in provinces, less than 1% in Central Assembly.

 

The Cabinet Mission Plan (1946)

British Withdrawal Seems Imminent

• The success of nationalist movements by the end of WWII.
• Nationalism penetrated new sections and areas.
• Bureaucracy and loyalist sections showed signs of nationalism.
  • Paucity of European recruits in ICS.
  • Policy of Indianisation ended British domination in ICS by WWI.
  • British-Indian parity existed by 1939.
• Long war caused weariness and economic concerns.
• Depleted, war-weary bureaucracy remained.
• Limitations and contradictions of the British strategy:
  • After Cripps’ Offer, there was little left to offer except full freedom.
  • Repressing non-violent resistance exposed the government’s force.
  • Not clamping down or offering truces showed weakness.
  • Efforts to woo Congress dismayed loyalists.
• Constitutionalism or Congress Raj boosted morale and spread patriotism.
• Demands for leniency for INA prisoners and the RIN ratings raised fears of unreliable armed forces in a future Congress movement.
• An all-out repression of a mass movement or entirely official rule were impractical.
• British policymakers aimed for a graceful withdrawal with a settlement.

On the Eve of Cabinet Mission Plan

• Congress demanded power transfer to one center and minority demands to be worked out later.
• British wanted a united, friendly India as a defense partner in the Commonwealth.
• British policy shifted to favoring a united India in 1946.
• Prime Minister Attlee said the minority cannot veto the majority’s advance.

Cabinet Mission Arrives (March 24, 1946)

• Discussed interim government and principles for a new constitution.
• Presented their own plan in May 1946 due to disagreements between Congress and the League.

Cabinet Mission Plan – Main Points

• Rejected a full-fledged Pakistan due to:
  • Large non-Muslim populations in the proposed areas.
  • The principle of communal self-determination could lead to further division.
  • Deep-seated regional ties would be disturbed by partition.
  • Economic and administrative problems would arise.
  • Dividing the armed forces would be dangerous.
• Grouped existing provincial assemblies into three sections:
  • Section A: Hindu-majority provinces.
  • Section B: Muslim-majority provinces.
  • Section C: Bengal and Assam (with Muslim majorities).
• Three-tier executive and legislature at provincial, section, and union levels.
• A 389-member constituent assembly elected by provincial assemblies.
• Assembly members from groups would decide the constitution for provinces and groups (if possible).
• The whole assembly would then work on the union constitution.
• A common center would control defense, communication, and external affairs (federal structure).
• Communal questions in the central legislature decided by a simple majority of both communities present and voting.
• Provinces to have full autonomy and residual powers.
• Princely states would be free to make arrangements with successor governments or the British.
• Provinces could come out of a group after the first general elections.
• An interim government to be formed from the constituent assembly.

Different Interpretations of the Grouping Clause

• Congress: Grouping was optional, one assembly was envisaged, the League had no veto.
• Muslim League: Grouping was compulsory, implying Pakistan.

Main Objections

• Congress:
  • Provinces should not have to wait to come out of a group.
  • Compulsory grouping contradicted provincial autonomy.
  • No elected members from princely states in the assembly.
• Muslim League:
  • Grouping should be compulsory, leading to Pakistan.

Acceptance and Rejection

• League accepted the long-term plan on June 6, 1946.
• Congress accepted on June 24, 1946.
• League withdrew its acceptance on July 29, 1946, due to Nehru’s statement and called for “direct action” for Pakistan.

Wavell’s ‘Breakdown Plan’ (May 1946)

• A middle course between “repression” and “scuttle”.
• British withdrawal to Muslim provinces and handing over the rest to Congress.
• Evidenced British recognition of the impossible task of suppressing a Congress rebellion.
• Desire to create a “Northern Ireland” of Pakistan in some official circles.

 

Communal Holocaust and the Interim Government

Massive Communal Riots

• From August 16, 1946, large-scale communal riots erupted across India, leaving thousands dead.
• Worst-hit areas: Calcutta, Bombay, Noakhali, Bihar, and Garhmukteshwar.

Changed Government Priorities

• Viceroy Wavell prioritized bringing Congress into the Interim Government, even without the League.
• This marked a shift from:
  • Wavell’s stance at the Shimla conference.
  • Encouraging communal forces.
  • Denying legitimacy to nationalism and Congress.

Formation of the Interim Government

• Fearing Congress mass action, a Congress-led government headed by Nehru was formed on September 2, 1946.
• Despite the title, it held limited power under Wavell.
• The League joined the government on October 26, 1946 with several concessions:
  • Not abandoning “direct action.”
  • Rejecting the Cabinet Mission plans.
  • Insisting on compulsory grouping with section-wise majority votes (disadvantageous to opponents of Pakistan in Assam and NWFP).

 

Interim Government (September 2, 1946 – August 15, 1947)

1. Jawaharlal Nehru: Vice President of Executive Council, External Affairs and Common Wealth Relations
2. Vallabhbhai Patel: Home, Information and Broadcasting
3. Baldev Singh: Defence
4. John Mathai: Industries and Supplies
5. Rajagopalachari: Education
6. H. Bhabha: Works, Mines and Power
7. Rajendra Prasad: Agriculture and Food
8. Jagjivan Ram: Labour
9. Asaf Ali: Railway
10. Liaquat Ali Khan (Muslim League): Finance
11. Ibrahim Ismail Chundrigar (Muslim League): Commerce
12. Abdur Rab Nishtar (Muslim League): Communications
13. Ghazanfar Ali Khan (Muslim League): Health
14. Jogendra Nath Mandal (Muslim League): Law

 

League’s Obstructionist Approach

• The League boycotted the Constituent Assembly’s first meeting on December 9, 1946.
• The Assembly passed a general “Objectives Resolution” outlining an independent, democratic republic.
• The League:
  • Refused informal cabinet meetings.
  • Questioned Congress decisions and appointments.
  • Restricted other ministries’ functioning through Liaquat Ali Khan (Finance Minister).
• The League aimed to use the government as a platform to pursue Pakistan.

Congress Frustration and Demands

• Congress demanded the British get the League to cooperate or leave the government.
• In February 1947, Congress ministers threatened to resign if the League didn’t change its behavior.
• The League’s demand to dissolve the Constituent Assembly further heightened tensions.

 

Birth and Spread of Communalism in India

Emergence of Communalism

• Arose around the end of the 19th century alongside nationalism.
• Posed a major threat to Indian unity and the national movement.

Characteristic Features

• Communalism evolved in three stages:
  • (i) Communal Nationalism: Shared religion leads to shared secular interests.
  • (ii) Liberal Communalism: Different religions have different secular interests.
  • (iii) Extreme Communalism: Religious interests are incompatible; coexistence is impossible.

Comparisons to Other Ideologies

• Indian communalism is similar to phenomena like Fascism, anti-Semitism, and sectarian conflicts.
• It bypasses economic realities to focus on invented group interests.

Roots of Communalism

• A modern phenomenon arising from:
  • Mass mobilization in modern politics.
  • The need for wider social identities.
  • Spread of ideas of nation, class, and cultural identity.
• Religious consciousness transformed into communal consciousness in some parts of India.

Social Roots

• Blamed on the rising middle class:
  • Used imaginary communal interests to advance their own economic interests.
  • Communalism as a “bourgeois question” (according to the Left).

Colonial Role

• The British administration:
  • Supported communalists to expand their social base.
  • Benefited from the alignment of religious and socio-economic divides.

Religion and Education

• Religion itself is not inherently communal.
• Lack of education and awareness made religion susceptible to manipulation.

Reasons for Growth

• Clash between old and new social identities.

Socio-economic Reasons

• Religion did not always define economic and political interests.
• Commonalities existed within religious communities based on:
  • Language
  • Culture
  • Caste
  • Social status
  • Customs
• Both Hindus and Muslims were victims of British imperialism.

Uneven Educational Development

• Slower growth of modern education among Muslims compared to Hindus, Parsis, and Christians.
• Fewer Muslims participated in trade and industry.

Political and Economic Disparity

• Educated Muslims faced limited job opportunities, leading to dependence on government employment.
• British officials and some Muslim leaders:
  • Incited tensions between educated Hindus and Muslims.
  • Promised government jobs and favors to loyal Muslims.
• Competition for a limited number of jobs fueled communal tensions.

Colonial Divide-and-Rule Tactics

• The British used concessions and reservations to exploit communal and separatist tendencies.

Delayed Political Consciousness

• Slower development of modern political awareness among Muslims.
• Dominance of traditional elites hindered progress.

Misguided Nationalism

• Concepts of Hindu and Muslim nationalism emerged.
• Many Hindus and Muslims failed to recognize the root causes of their problems (British rule, underdevelopment).

 

British Policy of Divide and Rule

• Initial Suspicion of Muslims:
  • Repression and discrimination after Wahabi and 1857 revolts.
  • Decline of Muslim education and economic opportunities due to neglect of Arabic and Persian.
• Shifting Policy After 1870s:
  • To counter rising nationalism, British supported Muslims with concessions and reservations.
  • Sir Syed Ahmed Khan:
    • Initially reformist, later aligned with British.
    • Advised Muslims to stay away from Congress and avoid politicization.
    • Promoted the idea of separate Hindu and Muslim interests.

Communalism in History Writing

• Imperialist and Chauvinist Interpretations:
  • Portrayed Indian history as a Hindu-Muslim conflict.
  • Ignored economic and political realities behind conflicts.
  • Denied the existence of a composite Indian culture.
• Hindu Communal View:
  • Glorified ancient India and denigrated medieval period under Muslim rule.
  • Ignored cultural and societal advancements during the medieval period.

Side-effects of Socio-religious Reform Movements

• Militant Reform Movements:
  • Wahabi Movement (Muslims) and Shuddhi Movement (Hindus) with extremist views.
  • Made religion more susceptible to manipulation for communal purposes.
  • Reforms seen as attempts to isolate communities from each other.

Side-effects of Militant Nationalism

• Early Nationalist Efforts:
  • Dadabhai Naoroji (1886): Congress wouldn’t address religious issues.
  • 1889: Congress avoided issues opposed by Muslims.
• Shift Towards Hindu Nationalism:
  • Tilak’s Hindu festivals and anti-cow slaughter campaigns alienated Muslims.
  • Aurobindo’s concept of an Aryanised India and Swadeshi movement rituals discouraged Muslim participation.
  • Communal elements in Lucknow Pact (1916) and Khilafat movement (1920-22).
  • Focus on religious grounds (Khilafat) instead of broader national interests.

Communal Reaction by Majority Community

• Response to Minority Communalism:
  • Hindu zamindars, moneylenders, and middle class expressed anti-Muslim sentiments.
  • Claimed British rule liberated Hindus from Muslim oppression.
  • Gave Hindi a Hindu communal color by downplaying Urdu’s historical significance.
• Rise of Hindu Communal Organizations:
  • Punjab Hindu Sabha (1909): Opposed Congress and advocated siding with British against Muslims.
  • All-India Hindu Mahasabha (1915)
  • Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS) (1925) – Gained influence later.
• Comparison of Hindu and Muslim Communalism:
  • Modern, secular Hindu intelligentsia initially held more sway, limiting Hindu communalism’s strength.
  • Muslim communal elements (landlords, religious leaders, bureaucrats) held greater influence.
  • Competition between communalisms hindered effective countermeasures.

Evolution of the Two-Nation Theory

Early Seeds (1887):

• Viceroy Dufferin and Lt. Governor Colvin opposed the Congress.
• Syed Ahmed Khan discouraged Muslim participation in Congress.
• Some Muslims (Badruddin Tyabji, Mir Musharraf Hussain) joined Congress anyway.

1905-1909: Growing Divide

• 1906: Muslim delegation led by Agha Khan demanded separate electorates and weightage beyond population.
• 1906: All-India Muslim League founded to promote loyalty to British and counter Congress influence.
• 1909: Separate electorates granted under Morley-Minto Reforms.
• 1909: Punjab Hindu Sabha founded to oppose Congress and side with British against Muslims.

1912-1928: Nationalism with a Communal Bent

• 1912-1924: Younger Muslim nationalists dominated the League, but with a communal outlook.
• 1916: Lucknow Pact: Congress accepted separate electorates, presenting joint demands with the League.
• 1920-1922: Muslims participated in nationalist movements, but with a communal element in their perspective.
• 1920s: Rise of communal movements:
  • Arya Samajists (Hindu): Shuddhi (reconversion) and Sangathan (organization) movements.
  • Muslims: Tabligh and Tanzeem movements in response.
  • Some nationalists turned communal (e.g., Swarajists).
• 1928: Jinnah’s 14 Points demanded separate electorates, reservations, and self-governing Muslim bodies.

Nehru Report and Beyond (1928-1934)

• 1928: Nehru Report on reforms opposed by Muslim hardliners and Sikh League.
• Jinnah’s 14 points exposed issues with Congress’s approach:
  • Legitimized separate community politics.
  • Undermined secular, nationalist Muslims.
  • Encouraged similar demands from other communities.
  • Hindered effective countermeasures against communalism.
• 1930-1934: Lower Muslim participation in Congress movements compared to Khilafat agitation.
• Communalists attended all three Round Table Conferences on constitutional reforms, while Congress boycotted two.
• 1932: Communal Award accepted all Muslim demands in Jinnah’s 14 points.

Emergence of Extreme Communalism (After 1937)

• After poor performance in 1937 elections, the Muslim League adopted extreme communalism.
• Early 1930s: Idea of a separate Muslim nation emerged (developed by Rahmat Ali and poet Iqbal).
• Communalism became a mass movement targeting middle and upper classes with leaders like Z.A. Suleri and F.M. Durrani.
• This extreme version thrived on fear, hatred, and violence.
• Previously, “liberal communalism” focused on safeguards and reservations within a national framework.

Reasons for Extreme Communalism

• Increased radicalization among reactionary elements who used communalism to build a social base.
• British exhaustion of other divide-and-rule tactics.
• Emboldened communal forces due to earlier failures to challenge them.

1937-1947: Escalation and Partition

• Jinnah demanded the Congress declare itself Hindu and recognize the League as the sole Muslim representative (an impossible demand).
• 1940: Muslim League’s Lahore Resolution called for a separate Pakistan.
• During WWII, the League held veto power over political settlements.
• The League achieved its goal of Pakistan’s creation in 1947.