Chapter-25
Freedom with Division
Arora IAS Class Notes
Attlee’s Statement (February 20, 1947)
- British Announcement:
- Clement Attlee, British Prime Minister, declared Britain’s intention to leave India.
- Key Points:
- Deadline:June 30, 1948 for transfer of power, regardless of Indian agreement on a constitution.
- Power Transfer:
- To a central government (if formed).
- To existing provincial governments if a central government is not established (including the possibility the Muslim-majority provinces wouldn’t join).
- Princely States:
- British authority over them would end with transfer of power.
- These powers wouldn’t be transferred to any new Indian government.
- New Viceroy:Lord Mountbatten to replace Wavell.
- Reasons for Fixed Date:
- To pressure Indian parties to reach an agreement.
- To avoid a constitutional crisis.
- To demonstrate British sincerity about leaving.
- To acknowledge the decline of British authority in India.
- Congress Response:
- Open to transfer of power to multiple centers (existing assembly could function).
- Upset by the possibility of partition.
- Muslim League Response:
- Emboldened by the statement.
- Launched a civil disobedience movement in Punjab to overthrow the coalition government.
Independence and Partition
Reasons for Accepting Partition
- Communal riots and unworkable Congress-League coalition forced consideration of partition in early 1947.
- Hindu and Sikh groups in Bengal and Punjab feared forced inclusion in Pakistan.
- Nehru (Congress) stated partition of Punjab and Bengal as the only alternative to the Cabinet Mission Plan.
- Kripalani (Congress) offered to concede Pakistan if Bengal and Punjab were partitioned fairly.
Mountbatten as Viceroy (March 1947)
- More decisive than predecessors due to informal power to make on-the-spot decisions.
- Aided by British government’s firm decision to withdraw.
- Tasked with exploring unity and division options until October 1947, then advising on transfer of power.
- Realized the broad outlines of the situation were already clear before his arrival.
- Cabinet Mission Plan deemed a failure.
- Jinnah insisted on a sovereign state (Pakistan).
- Mountbatten attempted to woo both Congress and the League.
Mountbatten Plan (June 3, 1947)
- Freedom with partition gaining wider acceptance before Mountbatten’s arrival.
- Key innovation (suggested by V.P. Menon): immediate transfer of power with dominion status (and right to secession), eliminating the need to wait for a new political structure agreement.
Main Points of the Mountbatten Plan
- Punjab and Bengal Legislative Assemblies would vote on partition (simple majority required).
- Partition would create two dominions and two constituent assemblies.
- Sindh would decide its own future.
- Referendums in NWFP and Sylhet district (Bengal) would determine their fate.
- Congress concessions:
- No unified India.
- Pakistan’s creation.
- League concessions:
- Smaller Pakistan (Congress aim).
Why Congress Accepted Dominion Status
- Ensured peaceful and quick transfer of power.
- Allowed Congress to assume authority and control the explosive situation.
- Provided continuity in bureaucracy and army.
Why Britain Offered Dominion Status
- Potential to keep India within the Commonwealth (even temporarily).
- Economic and strategic benefits of continued ties with India.
Rationale for Early Independence (August 15, 1947)
- Secured Congress agreement to dominion status.
- Absolved Britain of responsibility for the communal situation.
- Plan implemented swiftly.
- Legislative assemblies of Bengal and Punjab voted for partition.
- East Bengal and West Punjab joined Pakistan.
- West Bengal and East Punjab remained with India.
- Sylhet district joined East Bengal.
- Boundary commissions were set up to demarcate new provinces’ borders.
- NWFP referendum favored Pakistan (Congress did not participate).
- Balochistan and Sindh joined Pakistan.
Indian Independence Act (July 18, 1947)
- Passed by British Parliament, formalizing the Mountbatten Plan.
- Established two independent dominions: India and Pakistan (effective August 15, 1947).
- Each dominion had a governor-general.
- Each dominion’s constituent assembly assumed legislative power.
- Existing central legislative bodies dissolved.
- Governments of both dominions to function under the Government of India Act, 1935 (until new constitutions were adopted).
- Pakistan became independent on August 14, 1947.
- India gained independence on August 15, 1947.
- Jinnah became the first Governor-General of Pakistan.
- India requested Mountbatten to continue as Governor-General.
Plan Balkan (March-May 1947 – Rejected)
- Mountbatten’s alternative plan if the Cabinet Mission Plan failed.
- Envisioned transfer of power to individual provinces (or a confederation).
- Punjab and Bengal could choose partition.
- New units and princely states could join India, Pakistan, or remain independent.
- Abandoned after Nehru’s strong opposition.
Problems of Early Withdrawal
- Rushed partition resulted in issues:
- Lack of transitional institutions to address partition problems.
- Jinnah’s refusal to share the Governor-General position with Mountbatten.
- Delay in announcing the Boundary Commission Award (August 12, 1947) to avoid British blame for violence.
Integration of States
State People’s Movement (1946-47)
- Demanded political rights and representation in the Constituent Assembly.
- Nehru: States refusing to join would be seen as hostile.
Vallabhbhai Patel Takes Charge (July 1947)
- Oversaw state incorporation in two phases.
Phase I (By August 15, 1947)
- Most states signed Instruments of Accession with India.
- Princes agreed to:
- Central authority over defense, external affairs, and communication (previously under British control).
- No change in internal political structure.
Reasons for Easy Agreement:
- Princes weren’t giving up much.
- Internal power remained intact.
Phase II (Within a Year)
- More complex integration process.
- Merged states with provinces or new unions (Kathiawar, Vindhya Pradesh, etc.).
- Internal constitutional changes in some states (e.g., Hyderabad, Mysore).
- Incentives: generous purses and positions as governors/rajapramukhs.
Patel’s Achievement
- Rapid political unification of India after independence.
Why Congress Accepted Partition
Long-Term Failures
- The Congress failed to integrate Muslim masses into the national movement.
- This reflects the movement’s success in anti-colonialism but failure in nation-building.
Reasons for Accepting Partition
- Urgency to Avoid Violence:Partition was seen as a way to prevent further spread of communal violence and the collapse of the Interim Government.
- Preserving Indian Unity:Partition prevented the Balkanization of India by stopping princely states from gaining independence.
- Gradual Concessions:The Congress had been conceding to the Muslim League’s demands for a separate state in stages:
- Cripps Mission (1942): Autonomy for Muslim-majority provinces.
- Gandhi-Jinnah talks (1944): Right of self-determination for Muslim-majority provinces.
- Cabinet Mission Plan (1946): Possibility of Muslim provinces forming a separate assembly.
- December 1946: Compulsory grouping of provinces.
- March 1947: CWC resolution accepting Punjab (and Bengal) partition if necessary.
- Inability to Control Riots:The Congress leadership, particularly Nehru, underestimated the intensity of communal violence and its effect on the populace.
- Wishful Thinking:Nehru believed Hindu-Muslim differences would resolve after independence and partition would be temporary/peaceful.
Gandhi’s Helplessness
- He felt the people’s communalization left him with no choice but to accept partition.
- He questioned the possibility of fighting communalism with a communally charged population.
- He urged Congress to reject partition emotionally but accept it practically.
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